International and Development Education The International and Development Education Series focuses on the complementary areas of comparative, international, and development education. Books emphasize a number of topics ranging from key international education issues, trends, and reforms to examina- tions of national education systems, social theories, and development education initiatives. Local, national, regional, and global volumes (single authored and edited collections) con- stitute the breadth of the series and offer potential contributors a great deal of latitude based on interests and cutting edge research. The series is supported by a strong network of international scholars and development professionals who serve on the International and Development Education Advisory Board and participate in the selection and review process for manuscript development. SERIES EDITORS John N. Hawkins Professor Emeritus, University of California, Los Angeles Senior Consultant, IFE 2020 East West Center W. James Jacob Assistant Professor, University of Pittsburgh Director, Institute for International Studies in Education PRODUCTION EDITOR Heejin Park Research Associate, Institute for International Studies in Education INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Clementina Acedo, UNESCO’s International Bureau of Education, Switzerland Ka-Ho Mok, University of Hong Kong, China Christine Musselin, Sciences Po, France Yusuf K. Nsubuga, Ministry of Education and Sports, Uganda Val D. Rust, University of California, Los Angeles John C. Weidman, University of Pittsburgh Institute for International Studies in Education School of Education, University of Pittsburgh 5714 Wesley W. Posvar Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260 Center for International and Development Education Graduate School of Education & Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles Box 951521, Moore Hall, Los Angeles, CA 90095 Titles: Higher Education in Asia/Pacific: Quality and the Public Good Edited by Terance W. Bigalke and Deane E. Neubauer Affirmative Action in China and the U.S.: A Dialogue on Inequality and Minority Education Edited by Minglang Zhou and Ann Maxwell Hill Critical Approaches to Comparative Education: Vertical Case Studies from Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and the Americas Edited by Frances Vavrus and Lesley Bartlett Curriculum Studies in South Africa: Intellectual Histories & Present Circumstances Edited by William F. Pinar Higher Education, Policy, and the Global Competition Phenomenon Edited by Laura M. Portnoi, Val D. Rust, and Sylvia S. Bagley The Search for New Governance of Higher Education in Asia Edited by Ka-Ho Mok International Students and Global Mobility in Higher Education: National Trends and New Directions Edited by Rajika Bhandari and Peggy Blumenthal Curriculum Studies in Brazil: Intellectual Histories, Present Circumstances Edited by William F. Pinar Access, Equity, and Capacity in Asia-Pacific Higher Education Edited by Deane Neubauer and Yoshiro Tanaka Forthcoming titles: Policy Debates in Comparative, International, and Development Education Edited by John N. Hawkins and W. James Jacob Increasing Effectiveness of the Community College Financial Model: A Global Perspective for the Global Economy Edited by Stewart E. Sutin, Daniel Derrico, Rosalind Latiner Raby, and Edward J. Valeau A , E , C CCESS QUITY AND APACITY IN A -P H E SIA ACIFIC IGHER DUCATION E DITED BY D N EANE EUBAUER AND Y T OSHIRO ANAKA ACCESS, EQUITY, AND CAPACITY IN ASIA-PACIFIC HIGHER EDUCATION Copyright © Deane Neubauer and Yoshiro Tanaka, 2011. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2011 978-0-230-10110-4 All rights reserved. First published in 2011 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-28665-2 ISBN 978-0-230-11921-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230119215 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Access, equity, and capacity in Asia Pacific higher education / edited by Deane E. Neubauer, Yoshiro Tanaka. p. cm.—(International & development education) 1. Universities and colleges—Pacific Area—Admission. 2. Universities and colleges—East Asia—Admission. 3. Education, Higher—Pacific Area—Case studies. 4. Education, Higher—East Asia—Case studies. 5. Educational equalization—Pacific Area—Case studies. 6. Educational equalization—East Asia—Case studies. I. Neubauer, Deane E. II. Tanaka, Yoshiro, 1955– III. Title. IV. Series. LB2351.4.P16A23 2011 378.1(cid:2)61091823—dc22 2010049022 A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: June 2011 Contents List of Tables vii East-West Center International Forum on Education 2020 ix Series Editors’ Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii 1 Introduction—Access, Equity, and Capacity 1 Deane Neubauer and Yoshiro Tanaka 2 Access, Equity, Capacity—Initiating Some Distinctions 5 John N. Hawkins and Deane Neubauer 3 Variations on Equity and Access in Higher Education in Asia 15 John N. Hawkins 4 Defining and Measuring Capacity in Asia- Pacific Higher Education 31 Deane Neubauer 5 A New World Order? The Emergence of “Structured Opportunity Markets” in Higher Education 49 John Aubrey Douglass 6 Equity and Access in a Constantly Expanding Indonesian Higher Education System 71 Irwan Abdullah 7 Quality as Key in Vietnam’s Passage to Educational Integration 83 Bui Phuong Lan 8 The Dilemma of Higher Education Policy Choices in Japan 99 Yoshiro Tanaka VI Contents 9 Aligning Capacity with Needs in the Process of Massification of Higher Education in China: Northeast Normal University as a Case 115 Yang Zhong 10 Access, Equity, and Capacity: Concepts and Practices versus National Development and Demographic Shifts in Malaysian Higher Education 127 S yed Ahmad Bin Hussein, Zita H. J. Mohd Fahmi, and Balakrishna Vassu 11 Social Justice, Equal Access, and Stratification of Higher Education in Taiwan 139 Shen-K eng Yang and (Kent) Sheng Yao Cheng 12 A ccess, Equity, and Capacity: Managing Trade- offs in the Philippines 155 Edilberto De Jesus 13 The Effect of Cross-B order Provision on Higher Education Access, Equity, and Capacity in the Asia- Pacific Region 171 Christopher Ziguras 14 Tensions between Autonomy and Accountability: Access, Equity, and Capacity in Korean Higher Education 187 Minho Yeom 15 T wo Decades of Rapid Higher Education Change: Losses and Gains in Equity, Capacity, and Access in Asia- Pacific Higher Education 209 Deane Neubauer and Yoshiro Tanaka List of Contributors 221 Index 227 Tables 6.1 P ercentage of GDP for education budgets for select countries 74 6.2 Target participation rates for HE 76 6.3 I ndonesian population age 20–24 according to type of activity in 2005 77 6.4 The unit cost of higher education (UCHE) as a component of fractional expenditures of selected universities (million rupiah) 79 11.1 Number of HEIs in Taiwan, 1949–2007 143 11.2 Number of public and private HEIs in Taiwan, 2006/2007 143 11.3 Number of male/female students in public/private HEIs, 2006/2007 143 11.4 T he educational background of freshmen’s fathers at four types of universities 147 11.5 T he educational background of freshmen’s mothers at four types of universities 148 13.1 Interregional student mobility, 2007 172 13.2 Singapore higher education students by provider type 180 14.1 Major higher education reform policies since 1980s 191 14.2 Growth of tertiary education 192 East-West Center International Forum on Education 2020 The East-West Center is an education and research organization established by the U.S. Congress in 1960 to strengthen relations and understanding among the peoples and nations of Asia, the Pacific, and the United States. The Center contributes to a peaceful, prosperous, and just Asia-Pacific community by serving as a vigorous hub for cooperative research, educa- tion, and dialogue on critical issues of common concern to the Asia-Pacific region and the United States. The International Forum on Education (IFE) 2020 is a research and training initiative within the Center that is focused on higher education transformation in the Asia-Pacific region. It was initiated to address the need for new paradigms in education that will respond to transformative economic, social, and cultural changes driven by increased globalization, heightened interdependency, and uneven development among nations. IFE 2020 aims to identify or conduct quality research on the phenomenal growth of higher education in the region, investigate forces and factors driving or resisting change, and apply research results to practical leader- ship training for social change in the region. The program’s major publica- tions have addressed issues of innovation, privatization, quality, migration, access, and equity, and the impact of the knowledge society on higher education. For further information, go to http://www.eastwestcenter.org/ education/international-forum-for-education-2020/. Series Editors’ Preface We are very pleased to welcome into our series another volume in our ongoing collaboration with the East-West Center’s International Forum on Education 2020. This book on access, equity, and capacity in the Asia-Pacific region focuses on a critical dimension for the future devel- opment of higher education. Nowhere in the world, perhaps, has there been such high demand for higher education, which in turn has cre- ated enormous challenges for institutional capacity, access, and equity. The volume makes a valuable contribution to exploring the common understandings of capacity and the structural problems that arise as a result of the expansion of higher education systems in the region. Issues of what constitutes appropriate capacity are explored in the context of differentiation, mission shift, and resource streams. The nature of the region lends itself to this discussion in the sense that the world’s larg- est and most demand-driven higher education system (China) in the world is there alongside systems that have the counterintuitive problem of overcapacity (Japan and Taiwan). Who gets educated, the question of access, and where one is educated is a global dilemma and is particu- larly visible in the Asia region as nations with large populations, emerg- ing economies, and a human resource structure that privileges those with higher degrees on the job market strive to keep pace with the rapid changes of globalization. As the authors note, it is not enough to build capacity and expand access if one does also account for the many dimensions of equity that present themselves. Equity of access is but one of these issues, and the authors expand this discussion to explore equity as it relates to survival in higher education (the drop out ques- tion), output (who learns what), and application (the alignment issue). This volume captures the complexities of these issues in the context of specific case studies and differentiated political economies. The authors are among the most distinguished in the region, widely published, and offer analytical and insightful analyses of these difficult issues. This is