ABC OF SPINAL CORD INJURY: Fourth edition BMJ Books ABC OF SPINAL CORD INJURY ABC OF SPINAL CORD INJURY Fourth edition Edited by DAVID GRUNDY Honorary Consultant in Spinal Injuries, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital, UK ANDREW SWAIN Clinical Director, Emergency Department, MidCentral Health, Palmerston Hospital North, New Zealand © BMJ Books 2002 BMJ Books is an imprint of the BMJ Publishing Group BMJ Publishing Group 1986, 1993, 1996 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. First published 1986 Reprinted 1989 Reprinted 1990 Reprinted 1991 Second edition 1993 Reprinted 1994 Third edition 1996 Reprinted 2000 Fourth edition 2002 by the BMJ Publishing Group, BMA House, Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9JR British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-7279-1518-5 Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed in Malaysia by Times Offset Cover image: Lumbar spine. Coloured x ray of four lumbar vertebrae of the human spine, seen in antero-posterior view. Reproduced with permission from Science Photo Library. v Contents Contributors vi Preface vii 1 At the accident 1 ANDREW SWAIN, and DAVID GRUNDY 2 Evacuation and initial management at hospital 5 ANDREW SWAIN, and DAVID GRUNDY 3 Radiological investigations 11 DAVID GRUNDY, ANDREW SWAIN, and ANDREW MORRIS 4 Early management and complications—I 17 DAVID GRUNDY, and ANDREW SWAIN 5 Early management and complications—II 21 DAVID GRUNDY, and ANDREW SWAIN 6 Medical management in the spinal injuries unit 25 DAVID GRUNDY, ANTHONY TROMANS, JOHN CARVELL, and FIRAS JAMIL 7 Urological management 33 PETER GUY, and DAVID GRUNDY 8 Nursing 41 CATRIONA WOOD, ELIZABETH BINKS, and DAVID GRUNDY 9 Physiotherapy 49 TRUDY WARD, and DAVID GRUNDY 10 Occupational therapy 53 SUE COX MARTIN, and DAVID GRUNDY 11 Social needs of patient and family 57 JULIA INGRAM, and DAVID GRUNDY 12 Transfer of care from hospital to community 60 RACHEL STOWELL, WENDY PICKARD, and DAVID GRUNDY 13 Later management and complications—I 65 DAVID GRUNDY, ANTHONY TROMANS, and FIRAS JAMIL 14 Later management and complications—II 70 DAVID GRUNDY, ANTHONY TROMANS, JOHN HOBBY, NIGEL NORTH, and IAN SWAIN 15 Spinal cord injury in the developing world 76 ANBA SOOPRAMANIEN and DAVID GRUNDY Index 81 vi Contributors Elizabeth Binks Senior Sister, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital John Carvell Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Salisbury District Hospital Sue Cox Martin Senior Occupational Therapist, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Peter Guy Consultant Urologist, Salisbury District Hospital John Hobby Consultant Plastic Surgeon, Salisbury District Hospital Julia Ingram Social Worker, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Firas Jamil Consultant in Spinal Injuries, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Andrew Morris Consultant Radiologist, Salisbury District Hospital Nigel North Consultant Clinical Psychologist, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Wendy Pickard Pressure Nurse Specialist, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Anba Soopramanien Consultant in Spinal Injuries, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Rachel Stowell Community Liaison Sister, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Ian Swain Professor of Medical Physics and Bioengineering, Salisbury District Hospital Anthony Tromans Consultant in Spinal Injuries, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Trudy Ward Therapy Manager, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital Catriona Wood Senior Clinical Nurse, The Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, Salisbury District Hospital The fourth edition of the ABC of Spinal Cord Injury, although now redesigned in the current ABC style, has the same goals as previous editions. It assumes spinal cord injury to be the underlying condition, and it must be remembered that a slightly different approach is used for trauma patients in whom spinal column injury cannot be excluded but cord damage is not suspected. This ABC aims to present in as clear a way as possible the correct management of patients with acute spinal cord injury, step by step, through all the phases of care and rehabilitation until eventual return to the community. The book discusses how to move the injured patient from the scene of the accident, in conformity with pre-hospital techniques used by ambulance services in developed countries, and it incorporates refinements in advanced trauma life support (ATLS) which have developed over the past decade. The text explains how to assess the patient, using updated information on the classification and neurological assessment of spinal cord injury. There is a greater emphasis in making the correct diagnosis of spinal injury and established cord injury—unfortunately, litigation due to missed diagnosis is not uncommon. The pitfalls in diagnosis are identified, and by following the step by step approach described, failure to diagnose these serious injuries should therefore be minimised. Patients with an acute spinal cord injury often have associated injuries, and the principles involved in managing these injuries are also discussed. The later chapters follow the patient through the various stages of rehabilitation, and describe the specialised nursing, physiotherapy and occupational therapy required. They also discuss the social and psychological support needed for many of these patients in helping both patient and family adjust to what is often a lifetime of disability. Where applicable, the newer surgical advances, including the use of implants which can result in enhanced independence and mobility, are described. Later complications and their management are discussed, and for the first time there is a chapter on the special challenges of managing spinal cord injuries in developing countries, where the incidence is higher and financial resources poorer than in the developed world. David Grundy Andrew Swain vii Preface 1 1 At the accident Andrew Swain, David Grundy Spinal cord injury is a mortal condition and has been recognised as such since antiquity. In about 2500 BC, in the Edwin Smith papyrus, an unknown Egyptian physician accurately described the clinical features of traumatic tetraplegia (quadriplegia) and revealed an awareness of the awful prognosis with the chilling advice: “an ailment not to be treated”. That view prevailed until the early years of this century. In the First World War 90% of patients who suffered a spinal cord injury died within one year of wounding and only about 1% survived more than 20 years. Fortunately, the vision of a few pioneers—Guttmann in the United Kingdom together with Munro and Bors in the United States—has greatly improved the outlook for those with spinal cord injury, although the mortality associated with tetraplegia was still 35% in the 1960s. The better understanding and management of spinal cord injury have led to a reduction in mortality and a higher incidence of incomplete spinal cord damage in those who survive. Ideal management now demands immediate evacuation from the scene of the accident to a centre where intensive care of the patient can be undertaken in liaison with a specialist in spinal cord injuries. At present the annual incidence of spinal cord injury within the United Kingdom is about 10 to 15 per million of the population. In recent years there has been an increase in the proportion of injuries to the cervical spinal cord, and this is now the most common indication for admission to a spinal injuries unit. Only about 5% of spinal cord injuries occur in children, mainly following road trauma or falls from a height greater than their own, but they sustain a complete cord injury more frequently than adults. Although the effect of the initial trauma is irreversible, the spinal cord is at risk from further injury by injudicious early management. The emergency services must avoid such complications in unconscious patients by being aware of the possibility of spinal cord injury from the nature of the accident, and in conscious patients by suspecting the diagnosis from the history and basic examination. If such an injury is suspected the patient must be handled correctly from the outset. Figure 1.1 Edwin Smith papyrus. Reproduced with permission from Hughes JT. The Edwin Smith Papyrus. Paraplegia 1988:26:71–82. 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 40% 45% 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 15% 3 4567 Figure 1.2 Proportion of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar injuries in 126 patients with spinal cord trauma admitted to the Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, 1997–99. Box 1.1 Causes of spinal cord injury—126 new patient admissions to Duke of Cornwall Spinal Treatment Centre, 1997–99 Road traffic accidents 45% Domestic and industrial 34% Car, van, coach, lorry 16.5% accidents Motorcycle 20% Domestic—e.g. falls down Cycle 5.5% stairs or from trees Pedestrian 1.5% or ladders 22% Aeroplane, helicopter 1.5% Accidents at work—e.g. Self harm and criminal 6% falls from scaffolding or assault ladders, crush injuries 12% Self harm 5% Injuries at sport 15% Criminal assault 1% Diving into shallow water 4% Rugby 1% Horse riding 3% Miscellaneous—e.g. gymnastics, motocross, skiing, etc, 7%