Bull.Br.arachnol.Soc.(2006)13(8),321–328 321 A survey of Holarctic Linyphiidae (Araneae). Illustrations were made using a transmitted light 1. A review of the Palaearctic genus Notioscopus microscope with drawing ‘‘devices’’. SEM-micro- Simon, 1884 photographs were made with a JEOL JSM-5200 in the Zoological Museum, University of Turku. All measure- Yuri M. Marusik ments are in mm. Leg measurements are in the form: fe+pa+ti+mt+ta. InstituteforBiologicalProblemsoftheNorth, PortovayaStr.18,Magadan,685000Russia Abbreviations used in SEM-photographs are as fol- lows: Male palp: Dsa=distal suprategular apophysis; Valeri A. Gnelitsa Dta=dorsal tibial apophysis; E=embolus; Ed=embolic SumyStateMakarenkoTeacher’sTrainingUniversity, division;Em=embolicmembrane;Eo=embolicopening; 87RomenskayaStr.,Sumy40000,Ukraine Lta=lateral tibial apophysis; Pc=paracymbium; Pt= protegulum; Spt=suprategulum; Ts=tegular sac. and Female epigyne: Ap=anterior median plate; Pp= posterior median plate. Seppo Koponen ZoologicalMuseum,UniversityofTurku, FI-20014Turku,Finland Genus Notioscopus Simon, 1884 Summary NotioscopusSimon,1884:643. Typespecies:ErigonesarcinataO.P.-Cambridge,1872 The erigonine genus Notioscopus is revised and redelim- ited.ItincludestwospeciesdistributedinnorthernEurasia from England. The type species is rather well studied only: N. sarcinatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1872 (type species), and has 19 taxonomic entries in Platnick’s (2005) cata- andN.jamalensisGrese,1909.ThemaleofN.jamalensisis logue;18paperscontainillustrationsofthetypespecies. describedforthefirsttime,andthefemaleisredescribedfor Otherspeciesincluded:Atpresentonlytwospeciescan thefirsttimesincetheoriginaldescription.Bothspeciesare be included, the type species and N. jamalensis Grese, illustrated,andtheirdistributionandhabitatrequirements are reviewed. Notioscopus gibbicervix Denis, 1962 from 1909. Tanzania is transferred to Bursellia Holm, 1962: Bursellia Description: Small-sized dark coloured erigonines, gibbicervix (Denis, 1962) comb. n. The position of N. 1.7–2.3mmlong.Spinationinbothsexes2-2-1-1.TmIV australis Simon, 1894 from South Africa, known only absent. Position of TmI 0.54–0.61. Males with modified from the female, remains unclear. The relationships of carapace raised behind ocular area and with subconical NotioscopustootherLinyphiidaearebrieflydiscussed. outgrowth of thoracic part (Figs. 1–8). Sulci absent. Ocular area with hairs more dense and stronger than in other parts of carapace (Figs. 5–8). Chelicerae with Introduction large stridulating field (Fig. 36). Male palp with The spider genus Notioscopus Simon, 1884 currently elongate patella. Palpal tibia with one trichobothrium comprises four species (Platnick, 2005). Two species, N. (Figs. 9, 12) and two or more apophyses, lateral, dorsal sarcinatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1872 (the type species) and and intermediate (Figs. 9, 12, 15, 19); lateral apophysis N. jamalensis Grese, 1909 are known from the Palae- short to very long, dorsal apophysis also different in arctic.Twootherspecies,N.gibbicervixDenis,1962and two species. Paracymbium small, with hooked tip N. australis Simon, 1894, known from the Ethiopian (Figs. 15, 19). Cymbium unmodified. Tegulum with region (Tanzania and South Africa respectively), are small protegulum and tegular sac (Figs. 16, 18) some- hereconsideredtobelongtoothergenera.Onlythetype times hidden in lateral view by protegulum. Embolic speciesisknownfrombothsexes,two(N.jamalensisand division compact, S-shaped and slightly screwed N. australis) are known from females only, and N. (Figs. 10–11, 13–14, 16–18, 22, 24). Embolus proper gibbicervixfromonlythemaleholotype(Platnick,2005; short, making a turn of about 90( to axis of embolic Scharff, 1990). More than two decades ago males of the division. Dorsal side of base of embolus proper with Siberian species, N. jamalensis, were found in numerous outgrowth (hump). Epigyne without fovea or scape-like localities;however,themalehasneverbeendescribedor parts. Posterior median plate wider than long, with illustrated. Because there are two very similar species in strong wrinkles (ridges). Siberiaanditisdifficulttodistinguishthem,wedecided Diagnosis: Males of this genus can be easily recog- to undertake this study. nised by the subconical outgrowth (hump) on the thorax, the presence of a lateral tibial apophysis on the male palp, the S-shaped embolic division, hammer- Material and methods shaped in the terminal part, and the short outgrowth The material treated herein is shared between the (hump-like) on the base of the embolus proper. collections of the Zoological Museum, University of In the shape of the carapace, males of this genus Turku and the Zoological Museum of Moscow State resemble two Far Eastern genera, Ummeliata Strand, University. The map (Map 1) is based on material 1942 and Strandella Oi, 1960. In Strandella the hump studiedduringthisproject(seeMaterialexamined),and is raised upwards (not forwards) just behind the onourearlieridentificationspublishedinseveralpapers, eyes. In addition, Strandella has an abdominal pattern. and on literature data. Ummeliata males are more similar to those of 322 ReviewofthegenusNotioscopus Notioscopus but the hump extends upwards and flow,50(35#N,97(05#E,1300m,1\,2–4July1996(Y.M.Marusik); slightly forwards and does not adjoin the surface of Sangelen Mt. Range, Dzen-Aryk (creek) upper flow, 50(28.50#N, 95(24.74#N, 1750m, 3\, 16–18 July 1996 (Y. M. Marusik). the carapace. Males of Ummeliata also have a long KrasnoyarskProv.:Evenkiya,TaimuraRiver,NepteneRivermouth, tapering dorsal tibial apophysis and no lateral larch taiga, in moss, 2_ 4\, 30 July–3 August 1982 (K. Y. Eskov); apophysis. MirnoyeFieldStation(62(20#N),BolshayaVarlamovkaRiver,boggy Distinguishing species: Although the two species are valleyforest,inmoss,__\\,29August1979(K.Y.Eskov);Mirnoye very similar in general appearance, they can be easily Field Station (62(20#N), 1\, 29 June 1978 (K. Y. Eskov); Mirnoye separated by differences in the male carapace and copu- Field Station (62(20#N), spruce stand, 1_ 1\, 10–16 August 1978 (K. Y. Eskov). Yakutia: West Yakutia, Kempendyai River, 80km latory organs. frommouth,Sphagnumbog,1_2\,1–15August1988(K.Y.Eskov). Distribution: The genus is distributed from western Khabarovsk Prov.: Okhotsk Dist., Gyrbykan River (Ulya River Europe to eastern Siberia, north to Norwegian basin), Skalisty Creek, larch forest with shrubs, 1_ 2\, 15 August– Finnmark and the Yamal Peninsula, and south to 3September1986(I.Sukachova).SakhalinIsland:[19]Cpart,Uskovo R. (tributary of Tym’ River), c.12km NNE of Tymovskoye Town, Switzerland,Serbia,MongoliaandSakhalinIs.(Map1). 50(56.098#N, 142(45.541#E, 1\, 6 August 2001 (Y. M. Marusik). The two species have been found to occur together in MagadanArea:UpperKolymaRiverflow,environsofSibit-Tyellakh only one locality. Vill.,‘‘Aborigen’’FieldStation,61(57#N,149(40#E,8_16\,August 1985 (Y. M. Marusik); 137th km of Kolyma HWy, 60(25#N, 151(30#E,OlaRiver,valleyforest,20_\,28September1994(Y.M. Survey of species Marusik); ‘‘Aborigen’’ Field Station, alder shrub stand near creek, Sphagnumtussock,2_2\,24August1984(K.Y.Eskov).MONGO- Notioscopus jamalensis Grese, 1909 (Figs. 2, 4, 7–11, LIA: Arkhangai Aimak: Ondrer-Ulaan, Tsakhir, Chulut Gorge, 15–18, 27–28, 30–33, 36, Map 1) 48(07#N,100(22#E,2100m,underlogsandstonesinforest,2\,10–13 June1997(Y.M.Marusik). NotioscopusjamalensisGrese,1909:327,pl.7,fig.4(D\). Description: Total length (male/female) 2.0/2.3. Faunistic references: Eskov, 1988: 122; Eskov, 1992: Carapace 0.77/0.86 long, 0.66/0.64 wide. Leg I: 79; Marusik et al., 1992: 146; Marusik et al., 1993: 74; 0.64+0.23+0.59+0.49+0.41/0.6+0.24+0.5+0.47+0.39. Eskov, 1994: 82; Marusik et al., 1996: 34; Logunov TmI=0.6–0.61. Male carapace modified: thoracic part et al., 1998: 136; Marusik et al., 2000: 60, map 100; with outgrowth (lobe) directed forwards and with blunt Tanasevitch & Trilikauskas, 2004: 84. end (Figs. 4, 7–8). Base of outgrowth has no distinct Material examined: RUSSIA: Altai: SW Altai [100], 10km S margin with thorax (Fig. 7). Ocular area with hairs and Katanda,KuraganRiver,moss+litter,1\,6July1983(H.Hippa);SW small tubercles, visible in SEM only (Figs. 7–8). Palp as Altai[77],Kuragan,Sphagnum(50(04#N,86(10#E),2\,24July1983 (H. Hippa). Tuva: Kargy River middle flow, 50(31#N, 97(03#E, in Figs. 9–11, 15–18. Patella long (wtibia). Tibia with 1400m, 3\, 28–30 June 1996 (Y. M. Marusik); Kargy River middle two apophyses, lateral and dorsal. Lateral apophysis Map1: RangeofNotioscopusjamalensis(circles)andN.sarcinatus(squares,opensquaresforcountryrecords). Y.M.Marusik,V.A.Gnelitsa&S.Koponen 323 Figs.1–4: Malecarapace.1,3Notioscopussarcinatus.2,4N.jamalensis.1,2Lateralview;3,4Dorsalview.Scalelines=0.1mm. long, wide at base, sharply tapering, tip curving back- visible both in light and electron microscopes (Figs. 30, wards (dorsally) (Figs. 9, 15). Ventral side of tibia with 30a, 33). tooth-like outgrowth (Figs. 11, 17–18), retrolateral side Diagnosis: Notioscopus jamalensis can be easily dis- with one trichobothrium. Dorsal apophysis lamellate, tinguished from N. sarcinatus by the shape of the male withsharplypointedtip(Figs.9,15).Cymbiumunmodi- carapace and copulatory organs. The thoracic lobe is fied. Paracymbium small, basal part with three setae bluntintheSiberianspeciesandconicalintheEuropean (Fig. 15), apical part hook-like. Tegulum with small, one. The patella of N. jamalensis is about the same almost undeveloped protegulum and tegular sac length as the tibia (longer in N. sarcinatus). There are hidden in lateral view (Figs. 15–18). Tegulum about 1/3 prominent differences in the shape and size of the diameter of subtegulum. Embolic division compact, tibial apophyses, the lateral apophysis being long and embolus unscrewed, with large dorsal hump on basal tapering in N. jamalensis and short and finger-like in part.EpigyneasinFigs.27,28,30–33,withoutfoveaor N. sarcinatus. The dorsal apophysis is lamellate with outgrowths.Anteriormedianplateofepigynewithsmall sharp edges in the Siberian species and rounded in the droplet-like central lobe. In ventral view posterior European. The epigyne of N. jamalensis has no medianplatevisibleasnarrowstrip.Incaudalview,itis rectangular anterior median plate like that of N. trapezoidal, its surface with strong wrinkles (ridges) sarcinatus. Figs.5–8: Malecarapace.5–6Notioscopussarcinatus.7–8N.jamalensis.5,7Dorsalview;6,8Frontalview.Scalelines=0.1mm. 324 ReviewofthegenusNotioscopus Distribution: Notioscopus jamalensis has a Siberian Habitat: This species was reported from the Yenisei boreal range (Marusik et al., 2000) and is known from River from boggy spruce and open pine forests south Yamal (c.67.5(N) to middle Lena River (65(N), (Eskov, 1988). In Evenkia it was collected in larch northeasttoupperKolyma(c.63(N)andsouthwardto forest with green mosses (Eskov, 1988). In the upper Altai, Tuva (Marusik et al., 2000), central Mongolia Kolyma area, N. jamalensis occurs at elevations of (Marusik & Logunov, 1999) and central Sakhalin 450–1400m, chiefly in moss. It is most numerous in (present data), see Map 1. Its range overlaps with the Polytrichum moss cover in open larch forests. In the sibling N. sarcinatus only in Yenisei River Middle flow, locality (Mirnoye Field Station) where both Notio- Mirnoye Field Station (cf. Eskov, 1988). Only in South scopus species were found, they occupy different Yamal does it penetrate to the tundra zone. habitats. Figs.9–14: Malepalp.9–11Notioscopusjamalensis.12–14N.sarcinatus.9,12Retrolateralview;10,13Ventralview;11,14Prolateralview, apically.Scalelines=0.1mm. Y.M.Marusik,V.A.Gnelitsa&S.Koponen 325 Figs.15–24: Malepalp.15–18Notioscopusjamalensis.19–24N.sarcinatus.15,19Retrolateralview;16,23Apicalview;17,24Ventralview; 18, 20, 22 Prolateral view; 21 Tip of embolic division. Abbreviations: Dsa=distal suprategular apophysis; Dta=dorsal tibial apophysis; E=embolus; Ed=embolic division; Em=embolic membrane; Eo=embolic opening; Lta=lateral tibial apophysis; Pc=paracymbium;Pt=protegulum;Spt=suprategulum;Ts=tegularsac. 326 ReviewofthegenusNotioscopus Notioscopussarcinatus(O.P.-Cambridge,1872)(Figs.1, furrow(Fig.5).PalpasinFigs.12–14,19–24.Patellalong, 3, 5–6, 12–14, 19–26, 29, 34–35, Map 1) longer than tibia, equal in length to cymbium (Fig. 20). Tibiawithseveralapophyses(Figs.12,19):smallfilamen- ErigonesarcinataO.P.-Cambridge,1872:757,pl.65,fig.13(D_). touslateralapophysis,shortmassivebluntdorsalapophy- CoryphaeolanuslapponicusSchenkel,1939:98,fig.1(\). sisandtwosmallapophysesbetweenthem.Paracymbium Notioscopussarcinatus:Locket&Millidge,1953:285,fig.172C,E–H small, basal part with wrinkles (Fig. 19). Tegulum with (_\);Wiehle,1960:481,figs.888–895(_\);Merrett,1963:405, fig. 73A–C (_); Miller, 1971: 268, pl. 56, figs. 8–9 (_\); small but well developed protegulum (Figs, 12, 19) and Palmgren,1976:85,fig.16.1–4(_\);Millidge,1977:6,fig.7(_); with small tegular sac. Tegulum relatively large, about Roberts,1987:82,figs.35c,39a(_\). Y diameter of subtegulum. Embolic division with large Materialexamined:NORWAY:Finnmark:Porsanger,Vieksajokka, tailpiece, embolus screwed, with small hump (outgrowth) 70(22#N,bog,5\,1July–26August1978(S.Koponen).FINLAND: on its base. Epigyne as in Figs. 25–26, 29, 34–35, without Vehkalahti, Lankila, Sphagnum–Carex bog, 1_ 1\, 7 October 1968 (M.Saaristo);Ilomantsi,Maukkula,Sphagnumbog,1_1\,8Novem- fovea or outgrowths, anterior median plate rectangular ber 1967 (M. Saaristo); Luumäki, Sarvilahti (676:54), bog, 4_ 5\, (Figs. 25, 34). In caudal view epigyne with 5 triangular September1968(M-R.Honkalinna);Ilomantsi,Kallioniemi(696:70), extensions(Fig.29).Posteriormedianplateslightlywider peatbog,2_8\,2October1970(P.T.Lehtinen);Korppoo,Vidskär thanlong,oval-shaped,withstrongwrinkles. (6656:190),Sphagnuminbirch–aspenstand,1\,13May–29June1993 Diagnosis:Theconicalthoracicoutgrowthonthemale (S.Koponen);Oravainen(702:26),openbog,1_,25September1976 carapace, male palpal patella longer than tibia, short (P.T.Lehtinen);Turku,Kärsämäki,Pomponrahka(671:24),peatbog, 4_ 3\, 7 September 1972 (I. Oksala); Kuusamo, Juuma, Myllykoski filamentous lateral tibial apophysis and rectangular (735:60), 5\, 8 July 1966 (P. T. Lehtinen); Kittilä, Aakenusjoki anteriormedianplateoftheepigynearecharacteristic. (751:40),SphagnumandSalixlitter,1_2\,20June1967(M.Saaristo). Distribution: Although N. sarcinatus is treated by RUSSIA: Krasnoyarsk Prov.: Mirnoye Field Station (62(20#N), Platnick(2005)asaPalaearcticspecies,itisrestrictedto Varlamovka River, Hypnum bog, 27_\, 4 September 1979 (K. Y. the western half of Eurasia and is known from western Eskov). Europe to the Yenisei River (Eskov, 1988, 1994), see Description: Total length (male/female) 1.97/2.2. Map1.Thenorthernmostlimitofdistributionliesnorth Carapace 0.84/0.87 long, 0.63/0.61 wide. Leg I: 0.69+ of70(NinFennoscandia,seeMaterialexamined,andat 0.23+0.61+0.5+0.41/0.64+0.26+0.59+0.49+0.39. TmI= 62(N in West Siberia (Eskov, 1988). The southernmost 0.54–0.57. Thoracic outgrowth with conical tip (Figs. 3, records are from Switzerland (Blick et al., 2004) and 5–6), base of outgrowth clearly separated from thorax by Serbia (at 44(N; Deltshev et al., 2003). Figs.25–30: Epigyne.25,26,29Notioscopussarcinatus.27,28,30N.jamalensis.25,27Ventralview,generalappearance;26,28Ventral view,aftermaceration;29,30Caudalview.Scalelines=0.1mm. Y.M.Marusik,V.A.Gnelitsa&S.Koponen 327 Figs.31–36: Epigyneandchelicera.31–33,36Notioscopusjamalensis.34–35N.sarcinatus.31,32,34Epigyne,ventralview;33,35Epigyne, caudalview;36Chelicera,lateralview.Abbreviations:Ap=anteriormedianplate;Pp=posteriormedianplate. Habitat: In Yenisei River middle flow, where it over- Bursellia gibbicervix (Denis, 1962) comb. n. lapswithN.jamalensis,N.sarcinatuswasfoundinopen NotioscopusgibbicervixDenis,1962:191,figs.28–32(D_). Sphagnum–Hypnum bog with dwarf birch. In Finland, N. sarcinatus is known from Sphagnum in particular, Note: We studied the male holotype of N. gibbicervix both in bogs and boggy forests; according to Palmgren Denis, 1962, described from Oldeani Mt., Ngorongoro, (1976),itapparentlylivesonlyinSphagnumandfavours Tanzania (deposited in the Royal Museum for Central shady peatlands. In the United Kingdom it occurs Africa, Tervuren). It does not belong to Notioscopus or among wet, usually tall moss (Sphagnum, Polytrichum), totheAfricangenusCallitrichiaFage,1936,towhichat often under pine or other trees in swampy places, often least one former Notioscopus species belongs. Notio- in heathland areas, also in fens (Harvey et al., 2002). In scopusgibbicervixhasadifferenttypeofcarapacemodi- central Europe it has been found especially in moist fication,andanentirelydifferentembolicdivisionwitha localities,oftennearwater,inbogsandmoistmeadows, long embolus. Comparison with other African genera but also sometimes in forests (Hänggi et al., 1995). reveals similarities with the genus Bursellia Holm, 1962 (typespeciesB.glabraHolm,1962).Theyhaveasimilar modification of the carapace, almost identical shapes of Misplaced species the palpal femur and tibia, and the same types of ventro-retrolateral tibial apophysis and long embolus It is very improbable that species found in the Ethio- (see Holm, 1962). Therefore we transfer the species to pian region can be congeneric with North Palaearctic thegenusBursellia.AredescriptionofB.gibbicervixwill species. Although there are several cases of Afro– be given in a separate paper. Holarctic distribution, e.g. in Pelecopsis and Walckenaeria,therangesofthesegeneraarecontinuous, while in Notioscopus there is a disjunction between the Discussion Alps and Tanzania. Millidge (1977) placed Notioscopus in the Leptorhoptrum/Lophomma group. Judging from the Notioscopus australis Simon, 1894 embolic division, protegulum with tegular sac, lateral tibial apophysis, elongate palpal patella, and shape of NotioscopusaustralisSimon,1894:667(D\). the epigyne, Notioscopus is similar to Lophomma. How- Note: This species was described on the basis of the ever, males have entirely different modifications of the femalefromSouthAfrica.Thedescriptionisratherbrief carapace. Males of Lophomma have a slightly raised and has no detailed diagnosis or figures. We were not cephalic part, sulci and long furrows associated with abletorestudythetype.Itisverylikelythatthisspecies them. There are also significant differences in the was placed in Notioscopus mistakenly. Notioscopus has embolic division: two-armed in Lophomma and one- no peculiar somatic characters in females that allow the armed in Notioscopus. The hump on the base of the genustobedistinguishedwithcertainty.Consideringthe embolus proper in Notioscopus cannot be homologised above and the fact that such ranges (North Palaearctic with the anterior apophysis of the embolic division and South Africa) are not known among spiders, it is becauseitisplaceddorsallytotheembolus(ventrallyin easytosuggestthatN.australisSimon,1894maybelong Lophomma). In the shape of the embolic division (com- to one of the endemic African linyphiid genera. pact, longer than wide, straight or slightly S-shaped, 328 ReviewofthegenusNotioscopus with hump or apophysis above embolus proper) Notio- HÄNGGI, A., STÖCKLI, E. & NENTWIG, W. 1995: Habitats of scopusissimilartoTroxochrus[typespeciesT.scabricu- CentralEuropeanspiders.Miscneafaun.helv.4:1–459. HARVEY,P.R.,NELLIST,D.R.&TELFER,M.G.(eds.)2002: lus (Westring, 1851)] and Donacochara [type species D. Provisional atlas of British spiders (Arachnida, Araneae) 1. speciosa (Thorell, 1875)]. It is also similar to Glyphesis Huntingdon:BiologicalRecordsCentre. [type species G. servulus (Simon, 1881)], but the latter HOLM, Å. 1962: The spider fauna of the East African mountains. has an entirely different shape of the suprategulum. PartI:Fam.Erigonidae.Zool.Bidr.Upps.35:19–204. Judging from various characters, like shape of male LOCKET,G.H.&MILLIDGE,A.F.1953:Britishspiders2:1–449. carapace, length of male palpal sclerites, and para- RaySociety,London. cymbium, the most closely related genus seems to be LOGUNOV, D. V., MARUSIK, Y. M. & KOPONEN, S. 1998: A check-listofthespidersinTuva,SouthSiberiawithanalysisof Troxochrus. theirhabitatdistribution.Ber.naturw.-med.Ver.Innsbruck85: 125–159. Acknowledgements MARUSIK,Y.M.,ESKOV,K.Y.&KIM,J.P.1992:Acheck-listof spiders(Aranei)ofNorth-EastAsia.KoreanArachnol.8(1/2): We are grateful to Michael I. Saaristo (Turku) for 129–158. valuable discussions, to Kirill G. Mikhailov (Moscow) MARUSIK, Y. M., ESKOV, K. Y., KOPONEN, S. & VINOKUROV,N.N.1993:Acheck-listofspiders(Aranei)of and Rudy Jocqué (Tervuren) for the loan of specimens, Yakutia,Siberia.ArthropodaSelecta2(2):63–79. and to Ritva Penttinen and Veikko Rinne (Turku) for MARUSIK,Y.M.,HIPPA,H.&KOPONEN,S.1996:Spidersfrom helpinpracticalwork.Thisworkwassupportedinpart theAltaiarea,SouthSiberia.Actazool.fenn.201:11–45. by the Academy of Finland (projects 211596 and MARUSIK, Y. M. & LOGUNOV, D. V. 1999: On the spiders 211673), the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Aranei) collected in Mongolia during a joint American– (grant 04-04-48727 and 06-04-48335) and Far-East Mongolian–Russian expedition in 1997. Arthropoda Selecta 7(3):233–254. Branch of RAS grant (Biodiversity of Northern MARUSIK, Y. M., LOGUNOV, D. V. & KOPONEN, S. 2000: Cisokhotia). Spiders of Tuva, South Siberia. 1–252. Magadan: IBPN FEB RAS. References MERRETT, P. 1963: The palpus of male spiders of the family Linyphiidae.Proc.zool.Soc.Lond.140:347–467. 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