Project Gutenberg's A Racial Study of the Fijians, by Norman E. Gabel This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license Title: A Racial Study of the Fijians Author: Norman E. Gabel Release Date: March 14, 2012 [EBook #39140] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS *** Produced by Charlene Taylor, Jude Eylander, Joseph Cooper and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Illustration: Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of population made by the author. A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS BY NORMAN E. GABEL ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Vol. 20, No. I UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Editors: C. W. Meighan, Harry Hoijer. Eshref Shevky Volume 20, No. 1. pp. 1-44, plates 1-15 Submitted by editors April 11, 1957 Issued March 27, 1958 Price. $1.00 University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles California Cambridge University Press London, England Manufactured in the United States of America CONTENTS CONTENTS MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED PLATES Page Introduction 1 The problem and procedure 1 The habitat 2 History 3 Population 3 Racial background 4 Acknowledgments 4 Measurements and indices 5 General 5 Weight 5 Stature 5 Span 5 Span-stature index 5 The trunk 5 Sitting height 5 Relative sitting height 5 Biacromial 6 Relative shoulder breadth 6 Bi-iliac 6 Shoulder-hip 6 Chest breadth 6 Chest depth 6 Thoracic 6 Arms and legs 6 Arm length 6 [Pg v.] Humeral length 6 Radial length 7 Radial-humeral 7 Leg length 7 Tibial length 7 Calf circumference 7 The head 7 Head circumference 7 Head length 7 Head breadth 7 Cephalic index 7 Head height 8 Length-height 8 Breadth-height 8 Cranial module 8 Minimum frontal 8 Fronto-parietal 8 The face 8 Bizygomatic 8 Cephalo-facial 9 Zygo-frontal 9 Total face height 9 Total facial index 9 Upper face height 9 Upper facial index 9 Bigonial 9 Fronto-gonial 9 Zygo-gonial 10 Nasal height 10 Nasal breadth 10 Nasal index 10 Nasal depth 10 Nasal-depth index 10 Mouth breadth 10 Lip thickness 10 Ear length 10 Ear breadth 11 Ear index 11 Bicanine breadth 11 Morphological observations 12 Pigmentation 12 Skin color: exposed 12 Skin color: unexposed 12 Hair color 13 Eye color 13 Hair 13 Hair form 13 Hair texture 14 Head hair quantity 14 Hair length 14 Baldness 14 Beard quantity 14 Body hair 15 Grayness: head 15 Grayness: beard 16 The face 16 Prognathism: total 16 Prognathism: mid-facial 16 Prognathism: alveolar 16 Malar projection: lateral 16 Malar projection: frontal 16 Gonial angles 16 Palate shape 16 Chin prominence 17 Chin type 17 The head 17 Temporal fullness 17 Occipital protrusion 17 Lambdoidal flattening 17 Occipital flattening 17 Median sagittal crest 17 Parietal bosses 17 Cranial asymmetry 17 Facial asymmetry 18 Eyes 18 Eye folds: external 18 Eye fold: median 18 Eye folds: internal 18 Eye obliquity 18 Eye opening 18 Forehead 18 Brow ridges 18 Forehead height 19 Forehead slope 19 Nose 19 Nasion depression 19 Root height 19 Root breadth 19 Nasal septum 19 Bridge height 19 Bridge breadth 19 Nasal profile 19 Nasal-tip thickness 20 Nasal-tip inclination 20 Nasal wings 20 Mouth 20 Lip thickness: membranous 20 Lip thickness: integumental 20 Lip eversion 20 Lip seam 20 Teeth 21 Bite 21 Caries 21 Crowding 21 Tooth eruption 21 Wear 21 Ears 21 Ear helix 21 Darwin's point 21 Ear-lobe type 22 Ear-lobe size 22 Ear protrusion 22 Ear slant 22 Body build 22 Body build: endomorph 22 Body build: mesomorph 22 Body build: ectomorph 22 Summary 23 Conclusions 25 Literature cited 26 Plates 27 MAP Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of population made by the author ... frontispiece A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS BY NORMAN E. GABEL INTRODUCTION This paper concerns itself with a physical survey of the native male population of Fiji. The main objective is a description of these people by means of anthropometric procedure.[1] The treatment includes, first, a description of the Fijians as a whole, second, a comparison with neighboring people, and third, regional differences among the Fijians themselves. THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE The data used in this survey were secured in 1954 during a stay of seven months in Fiji. My plan was to obtain anthropometric samples from several parts of the archipelago; this plan was only slightly altered as time and [Pg 1] transportation facilities directed. Each of the three main administrative districts into which the islands are divided were visited and within each district samples were secured from most of the constituent provinces. The original sample consisted of 880 subjects. Later, 65 subjects were excluded for various reasons: some were part Samoan or Tongan, a few were Rotumans, and others were immature. The number finally used stands at 815. A limited amount of comparative material has been included in order to help locate the Fijians in the overall Pacific picture. These data were drawn from W. W. Howells, "Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands" in The American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, volume 33, part 4, 1933, and from L. R. Sullivan, "A Contribution to Tongan Somatology" based on the field studies of E. W. Gifford and W. C. McKern, in Memoires of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, volume 8, number 4, 1922. The latter report provides comparison with what may be termed western Polynesians who are also the nearest Polynesians to the Fijians. The Fijian data in Howell's paper make it possible for me to check some of my own Fijian material, and the Solomon Island data in the same report provide a Melanesian measuring stick. Since an over-all description of the Fijians is the initial concern of this paper, each physical trait measured or derived from measurement is tabulated according to range, average, and deviation. Traits observed but not measured are presented according to degree of development, e.g., absent, medium, and pronounced, and according to percentage of occurrence. Further statistical manipulation is not deemed necessary for the writer's purposes. It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people. They are regarded, and with good reason, as a hybrid of, mainly, Melanesian and Polynesian components. Their geographical location, their history, and their physical appearance bear this out. The proportions of Polynesian and Melanesian elements are, of course, not evenly distributed throughout Fiji. Even superficial observation indicates that the natives range from strongly Melanesian to markedly Polynesian. To demonstrate how this variability follows certain regional trends, the data have been broken down into four geographical areas. This subdivision rests on several considerations and merits further comment. One of the subgroups represents the people of the mountainous interior of Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji (see accompanying map). This region may be regarded as something of a refuge area. Fijians from this relatively isolated locality might reasonably be expected to exhibit more of the earlier racial elements of the total composition. It should be pointed out, however, that the degree of isolation associated with this; interior; group is not extreme. Fiji tradition and history indicate extensive interregional movement. Particularly in early historic times, when the advent of firearms and other Western culture greatly stimulated intergroup warfare and cannibalism, there was much moving about from one region to another. With all this, the interior people still remained, as indeed they are today, more apart from the rest of the population and less subject to outside influence. The second segment chosen for interregional comparison is in the central Lau Islands and is designated in this paper as the "eastern" group. Lying as they do, at the eastern end of Fiji, they are closest to Tonga, the nearest Polynesian neighbors. Tongan contact with Fiji in prehistoric as well as more recent times is well established. [2] It is in the Lau Islands that Polynesian cultural affinities are most marked. Hence, it seems a logical choice for a second and separate glance in the racial history. The third comparative sample might be termed an intermediate group. It is taken from the coastal villages of eastern Viti Levu, largely from the provinces of Rewa and Tailevu. This area is geographically between the "interior" and "eastern" groups and is referred to in this paper as the "coastal" group. The final regional division represents the northwestern parts of Viti Levu. This is the place where, according to Fiji tradition, their ancestors first landed after migrating from the west. [3] Fijian legend, which gives this hint of their ancestry, does not include a physical description of these immigrants. Nor does it define the physical appearance of the earlier people whom the newcomers encountered and with whom they mingled. On the rather slim hope that anthropometry might shed a little light on this questionable phase of Fijian history, this area, along with the first three, has received separate treatment. THE HABITAT The islands of Fiji are centrally located in the southwest Pacific. Over three hundred islands and islets make up the archipelago, which spreads between latitudes 15' and 22' south of the equator for 300 miles. The international date line runs through Fiji at the Koro Sea and the Moala Island group. The total land area of the islands is about the equivalent of the state of Delaware, somewhat over 7,000 square miles. Two great islands account for nearly 95 per cent of the total area: Viti Levu, the largest, is over 4,000 square miles, and Vanua Levu, about half as large. Over 90 per cent of the native population lives on these two islands although nearly a hundred other islands are inhabited. Most of the islands are made up of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The largest islands rest on a submerged portion of an ancient land mass, sometimes called the Melanesian continent, which goes back in time to the Paleozoic and, in its prime, intermittently connected Fiji with southeastern Asia and Australia. Subsequent submergence, followed by cycles of volcanic upbuilding, erosion, and more submergence over eons of time, gave the big islands their upper foundations. [Pg 2] The last extensive volcanic activity and land uplift occurred in the Pleistocene and accounts for many of the present mountain masses. The final touches to the Fiji profile have been wrought by more recent weathering and erosion. Sedimentation is still going on at river mouths and along the coasts, where deltas are being built and mangrove thickets flourish. Many of the smaller islands are old limestone masses that were pushed up from the sea. Unlike the high craggy volcanic islands, these are lower and flat-topped. Typically, they contain a basin-shaped depressed area that is surrounded by a rim. These depressions are usually fertile and heavily forested. Coral islands make up the third variety of land forms. These are always small and low. Their small size, thinner soil, and lack of fresh water make them much less suitable for human habitation. But even a thin layer of soil produces a luxurious vegetation. Fringing and barrier reefs are abundant throughout the archipelago, surrounding nearly every island. The most striking of these formations is the Great Sea Reef, which forms an arc of nearly 300 miles along the western fringe of Fiji and encloses large areas of coral-infested sea. Moderately high mountains give to the larger islands a generally rugged terrain. The more extensive ranges lie across the path of the prevailing south and easterly winds producing windward and leeward climatic areas. On the windward side rainfall is heavy and rather evenly distributed over the year. Here the valleys and mountain slopes support a typical dense tropical growth. The leeward side, however, receives much less moisture and has wet and dry seasons. Scattered patches of trees and grasses cover the ground, whereas heavy stands of forest are confined to valley bottoms and higher mountain slopes. The mountainous interior of Viti Levu contains a number of peaks over 3,000 feet, the highest of which is Mt. Victoria, 4,341 feet. Surface water is abundant on the bigger islands. Several large and navigable rivers drain Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The Rewa River, on the east side of Viti Levu is the largest and is navigable for small craft for 70 miles. Smaller rivers and hundreds of streams are important sources of food and drink for the people of the interior. Great flood plains are formed at the mouths of the larger rivers. These and the fertile flats that run back along the valleys contain the greatest population densities. The climate is generally pleasant and healthful. Tropical extremes of heat and humidity are moderated by the prevailing trades, which usually supply cool and pleasant breezes from the east. Still, days of uncomfortable heat and oppressive humidity are not unknown; however, such periods are protracted only in the interior. The climate is far from uniform throughout the islands. The windward sides, where rainfall often exceeds a hundred inches, have a more even temperature and sunshine is more moderate. On the leeward sides there is less general cloudiness and more sunshine, especially during the dry season. The smaller islands generally resemble the leeward areas in climate. Native plant and animal life, like much of the southwest Pacific, is southeastern Asiatic in type and in origin. In the more profuse and varied windward sides there are several general vegetation zones. Along the coasts and in the larger river basins occur alluvial vegetation largely dominated by several kinds of mangrove, which is densest in mud flats washed by the tide. In this zone trees are scattered, and many of them bear useful nuts and fruits. On the slopes and ridges behind the coastal belts are the great tropical rain forests. They make up a dense cover of evergreen trees interwoven with wild creepers and vines. Thick stands of shrubs and smaller trees add to the tropical profusion. Above 2,000 feet the forests thin out and become more heavily coated with moss and lichens, and ferns and orchids attach themselves to the branches. Beyond 3,000 feet is the cloud belt, and above this trees become stunted and are finally replaced by hardy shrubs that cling to the rocks and crags. On the leeward sides, patches of rain forest are found only in the moister areas. More typical of this zone are thin- leaved trees interspersed in large expanses of meadow and grassland. A number of native plants are very vital to the Fijian livelihood and some have modern economic importance. Several timber trees are essential to house building, canoe construction, and wood carving. The ubiquitous palms, here as elsewhere in the Pacific, are vital sources of food, drink, building, and weaving materials and cordage. The mangrove provides firewood, house poles, fishing fences, and traps, laths for bows and black dye for their hair and tapa. Valuable starch is secured from the sago palm, which is cut just before flowering, and the leaves are a common thatching material. Various reeds, canes, and bamboos and lianas are useful to Fiji economy. In the drier areas reeds and grasses provide material for house walls, thatch, fish fences, and arrow shafts. Several kinds of trees yield edible nuts and fruits. Like other central-Pacific island groups, Fiji is poorly provided with indigenous mammals. A small gray rat is a considerable pest in garden and homes, and a large nocturnal bat, which is called a flying fox, lives in tree colonies and is often seen at dusk in banana groves or other feeding places. All the economically important animals of Fiji have been introduced, such as pigs, fowl, dogs, cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Bird life is diverse and interesting, although in a number of places introduced forms, like mynahs and turtle doves, have forced the native varieties back into the jungle. Several game birds such as doves, pigeons, and ducks are occasionally hunted. Snakes and lizards are fairly common on the islands; none is poisonous. Some are eaten, but the practice is not usual. Snakes had a more important place in the former religious and totemic practices. Much more vital to the native economy is the abundant and varied marine life. This, with gardening, provides the foundation of Fijian subsistence. Turtles, crabs, prawns, eels, to say nothing of scores of fishes, are hunted, trapped, poisoned, speared, and netted. The cycle of the balolo worm has here the same importance as in other Pacific islands. HISTORY The first western contact with Fiji was made in 1643 when Captain Abel Tasman entered Fijian waters and sighted several islands and reefs without realizing the nature of his discovery. Over a hundred years later, Captain Cook made a second contact by stopping at one of the southern Lau Islands. Real knowledge of the area began in 1792 when Captain Bligh sailed through the archipelago from the southeast to the northwest, following the famous mutiny of the Bounty. Bligh made an attempt to land, was attacked by natives, and continued through the islands with no more landings. He did, however, make a record of most of the islands he passed. In the nineteenth century, commercial contacts began in the form of sandalwood trade. This profitable commodity brought Europeans and Americans first to the Sandalwood Coast on the west side of Vanua Levu. During this period the first systematic survey of Fijian waters was made by the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840. After little more than a decade the sandalwood supply was depleted to the point where trade virtually ceased. As a result of this initial commercial contact, which was mainly around western Vanua Levu and eastern Viti Levu, some marked changes were effected in Fijian culture. After the sandalwood traders abandoned Fiji for more profitable fields, a number of deserters and ship-wrecked men remained. These beachcombers, along with firearms that had been introduced by trade or salvaged from wrecks, brought about the first striking alterations. Rival chiefs competed for the acquisition of muskets, gunpowder, and beachcombers. The latter in some instances became attached to royal households as dubious advisors and instructors in the use of guns, powder, and shot. Some of these coaches enjoyed a status resembling that of household pets. The introduction of firearms changed the native political scene and increased the scope and destructiveness of warfare. For a time the rulers of Mbau in eastern Viti nearly monopolized the supply of muskets and white men. This established their political supremacy over rival leaders. Larger and stronger political and military alliances, some resembling small kingdoms, developed for purposes of defense or aggression. As warfare grew more frequent, new diseases entered the islands and trade in liquor advanced. After the third decade of the nineteenth century better elements began to enter Fiji and ensuing culture contact was not so consistently deplorable. Bêche-de-mer traders and whalers began to visit the islands for trade goods and supplies. Some began to settle at the east end of Viti Levu. Missionaries came in the 1830's and the Christianization of Fiji began. Internal conflict between rival chiefs, attacks on French, British, and American ships, with subsequent reprisals, continued and intensified. By mid-century, rivalry between the local kingdoms of Mbau and Rewa reached a peak. At this time the powerful ruler of Mbau, Thakombau, who dominated a large segment of eastern Viti Levu, had become hard pressed by his Rewa enemies. Thakombau submitted to the missionaries who had been pressing his conversion. With his support of the missionaries, the native struggles became a religious war between Christianity and paganism as well as between nativism and westernism. Thakombau's cause was rescued in 1855 when King George of Tonga brought an army of 2,000 warriors to Fiji and combined his strength with that of the kingdom of Mbau. Thenceforth Thakombau remained the paramount chief in eastern Fiji and for some twenty ensuing years ruled under the dominance of Tongan princes. Another Tongan chief, Ma'afu, arrived in 1848 and set up a political domain that rivaled the kingdom of Thakombau. Throughout these struggles and particularly with the conversion of Thakombau and the leadership of the already Christianized Tongan chiefs, native religion, including cannibalism, rapidly declined. Meanwhile, English, Australian, and New Zealand settlers were augmenting earlier trade contacts. Plantations and trade centers developed, and in 1857 a British consul was appointed and set up at Levuka on the east coast of Viti Levu. A few years later Thakombau sought relief from the payment of indemnities to foreign powers and from internal harassments by an offer to cede his dominions to Great Britain. The initial offer was declined and the British consul was recalled in 1860. The next ten years saw a continuation of political and military turmoil stemming from rival interests of native rulers, Tongan interlopers, and European immigrants. A second appeal to the British government resulted in an unconditional deed of cession on October 10, 1874, which marks the beginning of Fiji's status as a British Crown Colony. POPULATION Over 300,000 people live in the Fiji Islands. Of these about 140,000 are native Fijians. The others are arranged in the following divisions: [4] Indians 154,803 Europeans 6,500 [Pg 3] Part European 7,496 Polynesians Melanesians Micronesians } 4,133 Rotumans 3,990 Chinese 3,857 Others 649 When Fiji became a British Crown Colony in 1874 the population was entirely native except for a handful of outsiders. At that time the population has been variously estimated at approximately 200,000. Shortly thereafter a measles epidemic reduced their number severely. This, with other epidemics and maladies for which they had little or no immunity or resistence, continued the decimation until by 1905 there were only 87,000. During the next decade they held their own, until in 1919 the influenza scourge brought them to their lowest level of 83,000. This was the last serious setback to their number; since that time the population has been on the upgrade. A present threat to Fijian population, in the opinion of many, stems not from disease but from the Indian presence. This began in the latter part of the nineteenth century when Indian immigration of indentured laborers began. The influx went on until 1916 by which time some 40,000 to 50,000 Indians had come to Fiji and very few had returned to India. Since then, the Indians have increased more rapidly than the Fijians until they now outnumber them. This situation has, of course, created numerous problems beyond the scope of this paper. It is significant to point out that intermarriage or interbreeding between Fijians and Indians is relatively slight. The amount of mingling of Fijians with Europeans or Orientals cannot be demonstrated statistically, but it has not been extensive. The Fijians, on the whole, retain pretty much of their prehistoric racial make-up. RACIAL BACKGROUND It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people, derived mainly from Melanesian and Polynesian sources. Both of these parental strains in turn are commonly believed to be racial blends. Hooton describes the Melanesians as Oceanic Negroes whose composition includes Negrito, Australoid, "plus convex-nosed Mediterranean plus minor fractions of Malay and Polynesian."[5] Birdsell sees the same three strains in Melanesia which he believes contribute to the Australians, namely Negrito, Murrayan, and Carpentarian, plus a small amount of Mongoloid. He believes they differ from Australians in being "basically negritic in their genetic composition as a result of the rain forest environment."[6] Polynesians, however, are usually thought to be derived from Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid strains in which the Caucasoid component is more often the strongest. The composite character of the Fijians has been variously explained as far as order and time of the contributing elements are concerned. One theory regards a Negroid stock as aboriginal to which a Polynesian strain was later added. An early explanation of this sort is that of Fornander who held that the ancestors of the modern Polynesians coming from southeastern Asia via Indonesia in the early centuries A.D. made a prolonged stopover in Fiji as they moved eastward. This left a Polynesian imprint on the native Fijian physical appearance as well as on their language and culture.[7] Later on, Churchill added a second movement of Polynesians from the west about a thousand years later. This was used to explain a certain amount of Mongoloid elements that needed accounting for in western Polynesia.[8] A differing interpretation brings the Polynesian influence into Fiji from the east in relatively recent times. Thomson, for example, regards it as mainly Tongan. There are many references in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to Tongan presence in Fiji; they came to trade, to fight, and merely to visit. Hocart believes the Polynesians at one time occupied most of Fiji until they were driven eastward to Tonga and Samoa by native Melanesians.[9] Howells tentatively suggests another possibility: originally all of Fiji was occupied by Polynesians except perhaps for some Melanesian tribes in the mountainous interior of Viti Levu. Around the eleventh century a wave of immigrants from the west reached Fiji. "The newcomers, taking possession of the archipelago, partly amalgamated with and partly pushed out the Polynesian tenants, just as did the hill tribes of Hocart's theory, the refugees fleeing to Somoa and Tonga."[10] Howells associates this immigration with the Fijian tradition of an arrival of ancestral families from across the western sea. This Fijian tradition of their own origin includes a landing on the west coast of Viti Levu at Nandi by an ancestral chief and his sons who came across the sea from the west. Several of his sons moved eastward and eventually founded families with native wives in various parts of the archipelago. These families ultimately became consolidated into present-day tribes or federations. Most Fijian social units derive their origin from this or similar legendary immigrations. These eposodes occurred eight or ten and, in one case, fifteen generations ago.[11] Where these ancestors came from or what their racial affiliations were is not described in the stories. On the basis of supposed similarities of place-names, claims have been made for Africa as the place of origin, but the validity of them is dubious. It is likely that these traditions refer only to the more recent immigrations from the west. As to the racial make-up of the ancestors, it is [Pg 4] commonly believed that they were Polynesians who, after settling in various parts of Fiji, took native wives, presumably Melanesian, and originated many of the existing family lines. This assumption does not rest on any actual physical reference to their appearance but on such cultural data as their patrilineal succession and their tradition of strong hereditary chieftainship. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to a number of people of Fiji whose assistance and coöperation were helpful. Thanks are due to Sir Ronald Garvey, governor of Fiji, whose approval of my project gave administrative sanction. Mr. G. Kingsley Roth, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs, secured for me the coöperation of the Fijian Affairs Department, which in turn gave me access to the proper native officers and leaders, furnished me with necessary transportation; he also gave me some sound advice. Also of the Fijian Affairs Office, Ratu Dr. Dobi helped me make the necessary contacts as my work took me from one area to another. Mr. Robbin H. Yarrow, safety officer of the Emperor Gold Mining Company, was most helpful during my stay at Vatukoula, where I secured an excellent sample of the northern provinces. The young Fijian who acted as my interpreter, guide, and recorder was Joji Qalelawe; my especial thanks to him for his intelligent and cheerful coöperation. MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES GENERAL Weight[12] No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 814 105-300 163.0 20.3 12.5 Interior 0 0 0 0 0 East 73 130-245 168.1 19.3 11.5 Coast 210 118-300 160.7 22.8 14.2 N.W. 79 120-212 161.9 16.9 10.4 The average weight of 163 pounds, coupled with their rather tall stature, describes the Fijian as a large person, on the whole. Their generous weight does not reflect excessive obesity; the body build, as will be pointed out later, is prevailingly muscular and athletic. Variation among the regional samples is not significant; all the groups average more than 160 pounds. Stature No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 150.1-195.0 172.5 6.1 3.5 Interior 154 150.1-183.7 169.6 6.0 3.5 East 120 160.2-190.5 173.3 6.0 3.5 Coast 210 156.1-195.0 173.4 5.8 3.4 N.W. 79 159.8-186.0 172.7 5.8 3.3 Fiji (Howells) 133 158-190 170.8 6.1 3.6 Solomons (Howells) 85 146-181 160.2 6.8 4.2 Tonga (Sullivan) 92 160-188 173.0 5.2 3.0 The stature of the Fijians is moderately tall. Howells' series of Fijians, as well as mine, indicate this category. In this measurement, the Fijians are similar to the Tongans. They are 12 cm. taller than the Melanesians. Among the Fijian themselves, the interior people of the highlands are definitely shorter than the rest of the population. Rumors still persist of remnants of pygmoid people in the interior mountains of Viti Levu. I found no evidence of them either in my travels in the interior or by extensive inquiries among natives and Europeans who had thorough knowledge of the whole island. Span [Pg 5] No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 155.0-208.0 180.0 15.1 8.8 Interior 154 155.0-201.0 179.5 7.5 4.2 East 120 166.4-200.5 178.1 24.3 13.6 Coast 210 160.1-208.0 181.2 14.6 8.1 N.W. 79 165.1-202.0 180.0 21.6 11.9 Span of the arms also reflects the generous proportions of the Fijians. Regional difference is not marked. Relative to stature, the hill people have the longer arms and the eastern natives the shortest. The greater relative arm length of the hill tribes seems to be owing more to deficiency of stature than to excessive arm length or shoulder breadth. Span-Stature Index No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 96.1-116.3 104.3 8.5 8.15 Interior 154 99.4-115.1 105.2 2.3 2.2 East 120 99.1-108.5 102.7 13.5 13.14 Coast 210 97.9-116.3 104.4 7.7 7.4 N.W. 79 100.2-109.7 104.1 12.0 11.5 THE TRUNK Sitting Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 75.1-100 87.0 3.5 3.9 Interior 154 75.1-94 84.4 9.4 11.0 East 120 81-100 88.5 3.5 3.9 Coast 210 80-99 87.7 3.2 3.6 N.W. 79 80-94 86.0 2.9 3.3 Fiji (Howells) 132 78-101 88.3 3.06 3.46 Solomons (Howells) 85 69-95 83.6 3.8 4.5 A total sitting height average of 87 cm. attests the generous general body length. A regional trend follows the same curve as that for stature. The eastern body length is greatest; it exceeds the over-all average by 1-1/2 cm. and is more than 4 cm. larger than the interior people who fall at the bottom of the scale of sitting height. Howells' Fijian series is close to my eastern average. Compared with the Solomon Islands natives, the Fijians are much more elongated. Relative Sitting Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 45-58 50.4 1.5 3.0 Interior 154 46-56 49.8 1.4 2.8 East 120 48-54 51.0 1.3 2.5 Coast 210 46-56 50.5 1.4 2.8 N.W. 79 47-54 50.2 1.4 2.8 Fiji (Howells) 132 46-57 51.7 1.36 2.63 Solomons (Howells) 85 46-57 52.1 1.64 2.92 The relative sitting height ratio for all Fijians is 50.4 per cent. The eastern average of 51 per cent indicates a little more legginess, whereas the interior groups tend somewhat to longer trunks. Biacromial [Pg 6] No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 28-47 39.7 8.2 6.2 Interior 154 29-43 39.0 6.2 4.7 East 120 35-45 39.9 6.1 4.0 Coast 210 28-45 39.7 7.6 4.9 N.W. 79 35-47 40.5 6.6 3.9 The Fijians are generally a broad-shouldered people. The inhabitants of Ra and Ba have the highest average and the interior people are least broad-shouldered. Relative Shoulder Breadth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 18-27 22.3 1.3 5.8 Interior 154 19-25 22.9 1.0 3.9 East 120 20-26 23.0 1.0 3.9 Coast 210 18-26 22.9 1.0 4.4 N.W. 79 20-27 23.4 3.1 13.2 Relative to total stature, shoulder breadth averages 22.3 per cent. No significant regional differences are indicated. Bi-Iliac No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 23-40 29.2 5.6 5.3 Interior 154 25-38 29.0 5.1 5.2 East 120 27-34 29.5 4.1 4.8 Coast 210 23-37 29.2 5.9 5.5 N.W. 79 26-32 29.3 4.6 5.0 The Fijians, as a whole, are fairly broad-hipped; this condition holds with little variation in all the provinces. Shoulder-Hip No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 58-101 73.7 4.3 5.8 Interior 154 65-100 74.6 4.2 5.6 East 120 67-82 73.8 3.2 4.3 Coast 210 58-99 73.5 4.3 5.9 N.W. 79 62-86 72.8 5.9 8.1 The total shoulder-hip ratio describes the shoulders as 73.7 per cent as wide as the hips. These ratios do not vary greatly in different parts of Fiji. The somewhat higher index of the hill groups is owing largely to their narrower shoulders, whereas the superior shoulder breadth of the northwest provinces contributes mostly to the lower hip- shoulder index. Chest Breadth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 24-39 28.6 6.4 5.7 Interior 154 25-33 28.6 3.3 4.7 East 120 26-39 29.4 7.2 5.8 Coast 210 25-37 28.7 7.8 6.2 N.W. 79 25-32 28.9 4.3 4.9 Broad chests are also characteristic in Fiji. The eastern men surpass the Viti Levu males, and the interior groups have the narrowest chests, but the regional variations are small. Chest Depth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 184-308 22.9 5.5 7.0 Interior 154 195-263 22.4 3.2 5.8 East 120 189-295 22.5 4.9 6.6 Coast 210 184-300 21.7 5.7 7.2 N.W. 79 192-250 21.8 3.3 6.0 The chests of the Fijians are also fairly deep. The close similarity in chest depth of the interior group and the eastern sample is rather striking inasmuch as the former are nearly 4 cm. shorter in stature. This would indicate that the interior group, for their size, are relatively deep-chested. Thoracic No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 59-96 76.4 4.6 6.0 Interior 154 69-88 78.5 3.9 5.0 East 120 65-85 76.3 4.3 5.6 Coast 210 56-89 75.5 4.7 6.2 N.W. 79 65-85 75.7 4.4 5.8 The thoracic index shows that the Fijians are deep-chested relative to thoracic breadth as well as in absolute values. Again the interior people stand out for their deeper chests. ARMS AND LEGS Arm Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 45-87 75.2 5.0 6.6 Interior 154 45-83 73.6 4.8 6.1 East 120 52-84 75.1 3.9 5.2 Coast 210 57-87 76.0 4.9 6.4 N.W. 79 55-86 75.3 6.6 8.8 The over-all arm length is 75.2 cm. Shorter arms seem to be characteristic of the interior population where the average is nearly 2 cm. less than the over-all average. The eastern group has the longest arms; the other samples are intermediate. Humeral Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 26-39 32.8 8.6 5.7 Interior 154 28-38 32.8 7.1 5.2 East 120 28-39 32.9 8.3 5.6 Coast 210 26-38 32.9 9.1 5.8 N.W. 79 28-38 33.0 7.9 5.4 Length of the upper arm averages 33 cm. for all Fijians; the several provinces are closely similar in this trait. Radial Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 23-35 27.6 4.1 5.1 Interior 154 24-33 27.3 2.4 4.5 East 120 23-34 27.5 6.9 6.1 Coast 210 24-35 27.9 3.5 4.8 N.W. 79 25-32 27.9 3.4 4.8 Lower arm length is 27.6 cm. and also varies but little among the regional samples. Radial-Humeral No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 65-113 84.0 4.2 5.0 Interior 154 77-104 83.0 3.8 4.6 East 120 65-95 83.5 4.7 5.6 Coast 210 75-113 84.7 4.2 4.9 N.W. 79 77-94 82.2 3.6 4.3 The radial-humeral ratio indicates that the lower arm of Fijians is 84 per cent as long as the upper arm. None of the subgroups deviates markedly from this average. Leg Length[13] No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 61-98 84.3 10.5 12.5 Interior 154 74-96 81.1 8.6 12.9 East 120 73-96 84.1 8.6 10.3 Coast 210 68-97 85.3 7.2 8.5 N.W. 79 75-95 85.7 4.4 5.2 Average leg length is 84.3 cm., and some regional differences are manifest. The legs of the hill people are shorter by 3 cm. than are the other groups. Their neighbors to the northwest and east have the longest legs, and the eastern are intermediate. Tibial Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 34-49 40.9 8.3 6.9 Interior 154 35-45 40.3 13.4 10.8 East 120 35-47 40.7 6.2 5.2 Coast 210 35-47 41.2 6.8 5.1 N.W. 79 36-47 40.9 6.1 5.9 Lower leg length is around 40 cm. for all Fijians. The regional pattern is similar to that of total leg length: shortest in the highlands, intermediate in the east, and longest in the coastal and northwestern districts. Calf Circumference No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 29-57 37.6 6.7 7.1 Interior 154 31-51 37.0 6.4 7.1 East 120 33-50 38.1 4.7 6.5 Coast 210 29-48 37.2 9.4 7.9 N.W. 79 30-43 37.7 7.6 6.3 [Pg 7] The generous girth of the calf of the Fijians reflects their sturdily muscled legs. The eastern groups excel the other Fijians in this respect, whereas the interior groups have the lowest average for calf circumference. THE HEAD Head Circumference No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 410-630 562.4 7.8 6.7 Interior 154 537-613 565.3 4.1 2.5 East 120 528-630 566.3 4.9 2.9 Coast 210 410-630 563.5 4.6 3.5 N.W. 79 537-597 557.7 14.3 11.5 The head circumference average of 562.4 mm. Probably is a little on the large size because of the thick wiry hair of most Fijians; the eastern groups appear to have the largest heads and the northwestern groups show a rather abrupt drop. Head Length[14] No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 162-215 187.9 9.4 5.0 Interior 154 170-210 190.1 7.6 4.0 East 120 172-209 188.6 6.6 3.5 Coast 210 162-215 187.4 13.5 7.2 N.W. 79 165-214 187.2 7.9 4.2 Fiji (Howells) 133 164-208 188.8 7.29 3.86 Solomons (Howells) 85 170-208 188.5 6.5 3.5 Tonga (Sullivan) 117 173-213 191.0 6.6 3.5 Total head length for all Fijians is 187.9 mm; longest heads occur in the interior. Both Howells' Fijian average and the Solomon Islands series are close to the above value. Gifford's Tongan head length of 191 mm. Somewhat exceeds the Fijian. Head Breadth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 122-186 155.9 6.8 7.7 Interior 154 135-170 152.1 6.6 4.3 East 120 144-172 157.2 5.2 3.3 Coast 210 141-186 158.3 9.3 8.5 N.W. 79 122-185 152.9 8.6 8.2 Fiji (Howells) 133 135-170 153.7 6.1 3.9 Solomons (Howells) 85 126-158 144.7 5.2 3.6 Tonga (Sullivan) 117 145-167 154.8 4.3 2.8 General head breadth is 155.9 mm., and considerable regional variation is shown. Fijians of the interior have the narrowest heads, whereas the coastal and eastern people have appreciably wider heads. Howells' series of Fijians are closest to my highland groups. The Solomon Islanders are markedly narrower headed than the Fijians, whereas Sullivan's Tongan series is nearer the Fijian average. Cephalic Index No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. [Pg 7] [Pg 8]