Advanced Structured Materials Adel Mellit Mohamed Benghanem   Editors A Practical Guide for Advanced Methods in Solar Photovoltaic Systems Advanced Structured Materials Volume 128 Series Editors Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Esslingen University of Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Holm Altenbach , Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany Common engineering materials reach in many applications their limits and new developments are required to fulfil increasing demands on engineering materials. The performance ofmaterials can beincreasedby combiningdifferent materials to achieve better properties than a single constituent or by shaping the material or constituents in a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure mayariseondifferentlengthscales,suchasmicro-,meso-ormacroscale,andoffers possible applications in quite diverse fields. Thisbookseriesaddressesthefundamentalrelationshipbetweenmaterialsandtheir structure on the overall properties (e.g. mechanical, thermal, chemical or magnetic etc.) and applications. The topics of Advanced Structured Materials include but are not limited to (cid:129) classical fibre-reinforced composites (e.g. glass, carbon or Aramid reinforced plastics) (cid:129) metal matrix composites (MMCs) (cid:129) micro porous composites (cid:129) micro channel materials (cid:129) multilayered materials (cid:129) cellular materials (e.g., metallic or polymer foams, sponges, hollow sphere structures) (cid:129) porous materials (cid:129) truss structures (cid:129) nanocomposite materials (cid:129) biomaterials (cid:129) nanoporous metals (cid:129) concrete (cid:129) coated materials (cid:129) smart materials Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611 Adel Mellit Mohamed Benghanem (cid:129) Editors A Practical Guide for Advanced Methods in Solar Photovoltaic Systems 123 Editors AdelMellit MohamedBenghanem RenewableEnergy Laboratory Faculty of Science, Physics Department University of Jijel Islamic University Jijel, Algeria Madinah, SaudiArabia ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic) AdvancedStructured Materials ISBN978-3-030-43472-4 ISBN978-3-030-43473-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43473-1 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2020 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseof illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface The development in solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is growing very fast in recent years due to technological improvement, cost reductions in materials and government support for renewable energy-based electricity production. PV is playing an important role to utilize solar energy for electricity production world- wide.WithreferencetoIRENA,thePVmarketisgrowingrapidlywithworldwide around24GWin2010andalsogrowingatanannualrateof35–40%,whichmakes photovoltaic as one of the fastest growing industries. The total solar PV capacity almost growing the next ten years, as reported by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), from a global total of 480 GW in 2018 to 2840 GW by 2030, and to 8 519 GW by 2050. The same source mentioned that in the last decade, the globally installed capacity of off-grid solar PV has grown more than tenfoldfromroughly0.25GWin2008,toalmost3GWin2018.Off-gridsolarPV is a key technology for achieving full energy. Solar panels have improved substantially in their efficiencies and power output overthelastfewdecades.Theefficiencyofsolarcellrepresentsthemostimportant parameter in order to establish this technology in the market. Due to the decrease cost of PV modules, millions of PV systems were installed around the world. To better exploit the produced power by these installations and keep them working with good reliability and safety, these installations need to be monitored and supervisedperiodically.Recently,manytechniqueshavebeendevelopedtocontrol, supervise, optimize, monitor and diagnose these kind of systems. They vary in terms of complexity algorithms, cost implementation, effectiveness and feasibility. Thisbookaimstoofferthereader’sbackgroundonsolarcellsdevelopmentand thelatestadvancedmethodsinPVsystemapplications.Thisbookismainlydivided into two parts, the first one deals with theoretical and experimental in solar cells, including silicon, thin films, quantum and organic solar cells. The second part of this book provides some advanced methods in photovoltaic systems, including the application of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques in control, optimization, fault diagnosis and forecasting. The main goal of this book is to give postgradu- ate studentsandresearchersaresourceontherecentdevelopmentinsolarcellsand v vi Preface photovoltaic applications. This book is also useful for engineers and industry personnel who want to have a thorough understanding of the subject. This book is comprising of 13 chapters, six chapters cover subjects related to solar cell theory, modelling, simulation and design, while the rest seven chapters cover a variety of PV methods and applications, including, reconfiguration and optimisationofPVarrays,controlandPVoutputpowerforecasting,PVintegration in extra-high voltage level, energy storage, monitoring and fault diagnosis of PV plants. Chapter 1 is dedicated to solar radiation and solar simulators, which are widely used by PV researches. Inthis chapter, the fundamentalsof solar radiation and the components of solar radiation in the atmosphere are briefly presented. Besides, solarsimulatorsusedinPVtestsareemphasized,classificationofsolarsimulators, international standards and light sources are explained in detail. Also, as a case study, LED-based solar simulator is designed. Chapter2isdevotedtostudytheperformanceofsolarcellsusingthermoelectric module (TEM) as cooling system. A hybrid PV/TEM system is proposed for PV applications in hot sites (specific climate: Sahara regions). The investigated solar cells are mono-crystalline silicon, but the method could be used for cooling other solar cell technologies such thin-film solar cells. InChap.3,anopticaloptimizationofthetandemstructurecomposedoforganic photovoltaic (OPV) cells based on interpenetrating blend materials P3HT:PCBM and pBBTDPP2:PCBM is presented. The optical optimization of OPV based on P3HT:PCBM interpenetrating blend is firstly performed to determine the optimal geometry of the stack giving the best optical properties. The developed MATLAB program is based on the transfer matrix formalism. Different simulation steps are provided and discussed in details. Chapter 4 presents a theoretical study, and simulation of a compressively strainedGaAsxP1-xandtensilestrainGaNyAsxP1-x-yquantumwellactivezoneswith theaimtobeinsertedinsolarcells.Thechapterpresentsandcomparestheternary GaAsP/GaP and quaternary GaNAsP/GaP quantum well structures (QWs) by modelling these two types of systems. Chapter5focusesonacomprehensivereviewonorganicsolarcells.Thechapter provides different materials, devices structures and different processing techniques forthefabricationofOPVcells.Themanufacturerofthesetypesofsolarcellsuses newprocesstogetbestefficiencieswithlowcostbyusingprintingtechniquesand photoactive layers based on polymer materials. Also, many scientific research works are presented, and some illustrations about processing techniques, such as roll-to-roll techniques, for the design of OPV cells are presented in this chapter. Chapter6investigatesindetailtheeffectofdifferentdopants(Al,SnandCu)on the structure, texture and optical properties of ZnO thin films. Al-doped ZnO (AZO), Sn-doped ZnO (TZO) and Cu-doped ZnO (CZO) films are synthesized by chemical spray pyrolysis technique on glass substrates. The so-obtained films crystallized in hexagonal Wurtzite polycrystalline structure. The pole figures show thatallthethinfilmshave(0002)asthepreferredorientationalongthec-axiswith the highest level was obtained in TZO. The morphology film was significantly Preface vii affectedby doping type. The transmittance spectra ofall the films point out highly transparent in the visible range with an average transmittance higher than 80% for TZOandAZOfilmsbutwithanaveragetransmittanceequaltoabout70%forCZO film.Theopticalbandgapvaluesofthefilmsarefoundtobe3.30eV,3.28eVand 3.27eVforAl-,Sn-andCu-dopedZnOthinfilms,respectively.TheUrbachenergy of the films was also calculated in this chapter. InChap.7,a detaileddescriptionofanewmethodforreconfiguringthedynamic PV array under repeating shade conditions is provided. The repeating shades are often caused in PV installations, especially in residential installations where PV modules can be subjected to shades occurred by nearby buildings or trees. The methodisbasedonlogicgatesandaimstominimizetheprocessingtimeintheway that controller does not have to perform exhaustive calculations at each shade condition to achieve the optimal configuration of the PV generator. Simulation of 2x2sizedynamicphotovoltaic(DPV)arrayhasbeencarriedout.Experimentaltests of 1x1 size DPV array under different solar irradiance conditions have been also conducted. Chapter8providesacomprehensivedescriptionofdynamicbatteriesbehaviour, encountered problems in the PV systems with solutions proposal in terms of modellingandcontrol.Thestorageinrenewableenergysystems(RESs)especially in the PV stations is still a major issue related to their unpredictable and complex working.Duetothecontinuouschangesofthesourceoutputs,severalproblemscan be encountered for the sake of modelling, monitoring, control and lifetime extending of the storage devices. Therefore, several storage devices were intro- duced in the practice such as: pumped hydro, compressed air, flywheel, superca- pacitors and electrochemical storage. However, the electrochemical storage especially the storage by battery bank is still the most used in PV systems. Accordingtotheperformancesandthefeaturesneededinsuchsystems,twobattery types can be distinguished, namely lithium-ion and lead-acid-based batteries. Chapter 9 focuses on the integration of renewable energy sources in the main grid,acasestudyinIstanbul,Turkeyispresented.Theshareofvariablerenewable sources, especially solar energy, in total installed power capacity increases day by day. The power systems with the integration of solar energy sources transform. A power system to cope with high shares of variable solar generation needs to be flexible. In this chapter, thepower system flexibility concept, theeffect of variable renewableenergypenetration,especiallypowerplantsonpowersystemsflexibility, areexamined.Inaddition,simulationstudiesarecarriedoutforPVpowersystems penetration into extra-high-voltage levels (EHVL), necessary regulations for grid codes are determined and solution methods are presented. The main goal of Chap. 10 is to show the set-up a well-defined method to identify andproperlytraintheHybrid ArtificialNeuralNetworkboth interms ofa numberofneurons,hiddenlayersandtrainingsetsizeinordertoperformtheday- aheadpowerproductionforecastapplicabletoanyPVplant,accurately.Therefore, thischapterhasbeenaddressedtodescribetheadoptedhybridmethod(PHANN— PhysicalHybridArtificialNeuralNetwork)combiningboththedeterministicClear Sky Solar Radiation Algorithm (CSRM) and the stochastic Artificial Neural viii Preface Network (ANN) method in order to enhance the day-ahead power forecast. In this chapter, the main results obtained by applying the abovementioned procedure specificallyreferredtotheavailabledataofthePVpowerproductionofasinglePV module are presented. Chapter 11 deals with the control strategy of stand-alone hybrid photovoltaic/wind/battery power system. The goal is to examine the performance of the power system under several conditions of generation and demand. Acentralizedpowermanagementsystemisestablishedtosupervisethepowerflow between the generation units and user loads. Local controllers of the (photovoltaic/wind/battery) power sources are designed based on simple control schemes. The overall system is simulated in the MATLAB/Simulink environment using Xilinx System Generator (XSG) tool for possible implementation on field-programmable gate array (FPGA) board. The simulation results are provided inordertodemonstratetheaccuracyandfeasibilityofthedesignedcontrolscheme. Chapter 12 aims at investigating the performances of three different PV tech- nologies: poly-crystalline silicon (Poly C-Si), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) in terms of several aspects. A simple PV model based on manufacture’s datasheet has been used. Modelling and simulation I-V curves of different PV modules technology-based MATLAB-Simscape is described in details. A test facility is employed to carry out the required tests for assessing the proposed PV model. Obtained experimental results under different climateconditionsarecomparedwithsimulatedones.Thecomparisoniscarriedout by evaluating four statistical errors with a view of measuring the accuracy of the proposed model in predicting the I-V and P-V characteristics. Chapter 13 presents a brief survey on the recent application of artificial intelli- gence(AI)techniquesinfaultdiagnosisofPVplants.AI-basedmethodsaremainly usedtoidentifyandclassifythetypeoffaultsthatcanbehappenedinPVsystems, particularly in DC side. The methods will be presented and discussed in terms of complexity implementation, fault identification, classification and localization. Localizationoffault inlarge-scalePVplantsremainsachallengingissue,todateno AI-based method was applied to localize fault in large-scale PV plants. It is believedthatthis briefreviewcan helpusers andresearchers togetaclear idea on the potential application of AI techniques in this interesting field. Webelievethatthereaderswillfindthisbookasusefulforsolarcellsandsolar PV applications. Also, we hope that this book will contribute in the field of solar cells and PV system applications. Jijel, Algeria Adel Mellit Madinah, Saudi Arabia Mohamed Benghanem Acknowledgements First, we would like to thanks Springer Publisher for accepting our book proposal.Wewouldlikealsotoexpressourdeepgratitudetoallcontributorsinthisbook. Contents Part I SOLAR CELLS: Theory, Modeling and Simulation 1 Solar Irradiation Fundamentals and Solar Simulators . . . . . . . . . . 3 V. Esen, Ş. Sağlam, and B. Oral 1.1 Solar Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Solar Simulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2.1 Solar Simulator Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.2 Solar Simulator Classes for Photovoltaic Devices. . . . . 7 1.3 Light Sources of Solar Simulators for Photovoltaic Devices . . . 9 1.3.1 LED (Light Emitting Diode). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.2 Supercontinuum Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4 LED-Based Solar Simulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4.1 LED-Based Solar Simulator Development Project . . . . 12 1.4.2 Main Components of LED Solar Simulator . . . . . . . . . 13 1.5 System Test Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5.1 Spectral Match. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5.2 Spatial Non-uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.5.3 Temporal Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2 Performance of Solar Cells Using Thermoelectric Module in Hot Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 M. Benghanem and A. Almohammedi 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.2 Temperature Data Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.3 Thermoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.4 Modeling of Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.5 Hybrid System Solar Cell/Thermoelectric Module (SC/TEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 ix