A Modern Dictionary of Geography This page intentionally left blank A Modern Dictionary of Geography FOURTH EDITION Michael Witherick Visiting Fellow in Geography University of Southampton Simon Ross Head of Geography Queen's College Taunton John Small Emeritus Professor of Geography University of Southampton A member of the Hodder Headline Group LONDON Co-published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press Inc., New York First published in Great Britain in 2001 by Arnold, a member of the Hodder Headline Group, 338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH http://www.arnoldpublishers.com Co-published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press, Inc., 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY10016 © 2001 Michael Witherick, Simon Ross, John Small All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronically or mechanically, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without either prior permission in writing from the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying. In the United Kingdom such licences are issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency: 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIT 4LP The advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, but neither the authors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibiity or liability for any errors or omissions. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0 340 80713 X (hb) ISBN 0 340 76210 1 (pb) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 Production Editor: Wendy Rooke Production Controller: Brian Eccleshall Cover design: Terry Griffiths Typeset in 9/11 Minion by J&L Composition Ltd, Filey, North Yorkshire Printed and bound in Malta by Gutenberg Press What do you think about this book? Or any other Arnold title? Please send you comments to [email protected] Preface to the 4th edition This new edition of A Modern Dictionary of Geography is the outcome of a number of significant changes. One of its aims is to meet more directly the needs of sixth-formers preparing for the new AS and A2 examinations, at the same time maintaining the book's proven indispensability to geography undergraduates. The dimensions of the Dictionary now stand at nearly 2000 full entries, plus over 400 terms dealt with briefly and embedded in the definitions of related terms. The number of illustrations has also been increased substantially. My former colleague for over 20 years at the University of Southampton, John Small, in pre- vious editions responsible for the entries relating to physical geography, has decided that his mantle should now fall on younger shoulders. As a consequence, I have been happy to work alongside Simon Ross on this new edition. Its preparation has involved several revision processes in order that the Dictionary should reflect the current state of geography - as ever, a highly dynamic subject. These processes have included: • eliminating terms that have dropped from the vocabulary of modern geographers • updating existing entries in the light of research and the general march of time • including new terms that have entered into current usage during the last five years or so • the inclusion of more line diagrams to assist understanding of some of the more complex terms • coverage of terms encountered in the new AS and A2 specifications. Since the publication of the third edition, there have been some significant changes affecting both human and physical geography. The collapse of much of the communist world, the growing concern about environmental issues and the relentless march of globalization are three examples of significant developments since 1995 that have necessitated either the redrafting of existing entries or the production of entirely new ones. What to include and what to exclude remains a perennial problem, if only because selection is ultimately driven by a degree of per- sonal judgement. However, we hope that we are not too wide of the mark in fulfilling the needs and expectations of you, the reader. Michael Witherick December 2000 This page intentionally left blank Introduction In compiling this Dictionary we have been guided by a number of principles. Of these, the overriding one was to produce a book that would meet the needs primarily of pupils in advanced courses at secondary schools and colleges, or their equivalents in overseas countries, together with those of first-year undergraduates at universities and other institutions of higher education. The most difficult decision concerned the choice of terms for definition. Given the nature of geography as a discipline, and the fact that it interfaces with a range of other subjects, it is manifestly impossible to select a vocabulary that is in any way exclusive to geography. Inevitably, therefore, terms that are more properly geological, economic, sociological, statisti- cal and so on, have been included, though a conscious effort has been made to avoid 'opening the flood-gates' and to employ terms that are widely used by geographers at the level speci- fied. More controversial still was the identification of the terms deemed to be relevant to A- level and undergraduate geographers. Quite clearly, it is impossible to compile a definitive list that would be acceptable to everyone. What we have done, as A-level examiners and teachers, is to choose terms that - in our experience — are currently in use by A-level candidates (both from home and overseas centres) and that we would expect to be understood by first-year undergraduates. We have also consulted current AS and A2 syllabuses and question papers from all the British GCE boards, referred to the indices of textbooks that are primarily intended for A-level students and first-year undergraduates, as well as sounding out the views of practising teachers of geography. Although we have tried to be objective in our selection of terms, it is perhaps inevitable that our own particular interests and enthusiasms have had some influence on the final list. Some of these will doubtless be regarded as 'superfluous', 'too advanced', 'too elementary'; important omissions will also be identified. All that we can say is that this is our choice, made in good faith at this time. As the discipline of geography changes and develops, so undoubtedly we shall need to modify the selection for future editions. Indeed, we would like to extend an invi- tation to our readers to join with us in this challenge of extending, updating and refining the Dictionary. If you have any comments or suggestions for future editions, please write to us via the publishers, Arnold. Our main hope, however, is that the Dictionary as it presently stands will provide a compre- hensive guide to, and in many instances an explanation of, the principles, concepts and termi- nology of modern geography. We have deliberately aimed to achieve a balance between 'physical' and 'human' definitions. In some previous dictionaries of geography, there has arguably been a bias towards the former, reflecting the widespread use of'technical' or scientific terminology in branches of the subject such as geomorphology, meteorology and hydrology. However, it is in our opinion necessary to bring out the increasing use, particularly during the past two decades, of specialized terminology on the human side of geography. We have not attempted to define common commodities (which are adequately covered in 'standard' dictionaries); we have elected not to include esoteric, unusual or even bizarre terms (this Dictionary is not to be regarded as a jargoneer's charter!); and we have aimed to include 'local' terms only where they are also used, and known about, outside the country of origin. In some instances, we have included examples, where these were felt to illuminate further the def- inition and explanation of particular terms. In other instances, our view is that readers should be capable of deriving appropriate examples, both from their own first-hand experience and the reading of currently available textbooks. Ultimately, it is our hope that the Dictionary will go beyond the provision of rather 'bare', academically correct definitions, and will provide mate- rial that is interesting to read, that can be incorporated by students in essay work, and that can be used to assist revision work in preparation for examinations. Finally, a few additional points, which will assist readers in their use of the Dictionary, need to be stressed. These are outlined in the following checklist. A checklist for use • A cross-referencing system is employed and is signalled when, either within or at the end of a particular entry, another term is given in SMALL CAPITALS. For such terms, a full defini- tion is included elsewhere in the Dictionary. Consultation of these entries will then amplify, and aid the understanding of, the original entry. • Where a term is given in italics, it means that there is no separate entry. This device is mainly used in three different circumstances: (i) where the meaning of the term is appar- ent from the content of the entry in which it is contained; (ii) where the meaning is explained as part of a more comprehensive entry; and (iii) where the meaning is essen- tially synonymous. None the less, many of these italicized terms are recorded in the alpha- betical listing of the Dictionary along with the identity of their 'host' entry. • The Dictionary contains over 200 illustrations. Where a definition has an accompanying map or diagram, the abbreviation [ /] is given at the end of the entry. Where we think an entry might usefully be illustrated by reference to a figure associated with another defini- tion, the location of that map or diagram is indicated by [ /TERM]. • SI units are used throughout the Dictionary, though a full definition of these is not included on grounds of the length and complexity of the necessary tables. List of abbreviations BP before the present (era) cf see, for purposes of comparison cm centimetre ct see, for purposes of contrast d depth E east e.g. for example [ /] see figure attached [ /TERM] see figure attached to term cited g gram ha hectare i.e. that is kg kilogram km kilometre km2 square kilometre m metre m3 cubic metre mb millibars mg milligrams mm millimetre Mt Mount/mountain N north NE northeast NW northwest R river S south s second SE southeast SW southwest SI Systeme Internationale d'Unites w width W west UK United Kingdom USA United States of America yr year