A HISTORY OF THE WORLD FROM THE 20th TO THE 21st CENTURY With the onset of decolonisation, the rise and fall of fascism and communism, the technological revo- lution and the rapidly increasing power of the US, the world since 1900 has witnessed global change on an immense scale. Providing a comprehensive survey of the key events and personalities of this period throughout the world, A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century includes discussion of topics such as: • the conflict in Europe, 1900–19 • the brutal world of the dictators, 1930s and 1940s • the lost peace: the global impact of the Cold War • independence in Asia and Africa • the ‘war’ against terror. This now acclaimed history of the world has been updated throughout to take account of recent his- torical research. Bringing the story up to date, J. A. S. Grenville includes a discussion of events such as 9/11, recent economic problems in Latin America, the second Gulf War and the enlargement of the European Union. A fascinating and authoritative account of the world since 1900, A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century is essential reading for the general reader and student of world history alike. J. A. S. Grenville is Professor of Modern History, Emeritus, at the University of Birmingham. He is a distinguished historian and is the author of a number of books, including Politics, Strategy and American Diplomacy (1969), Europe Reshaped, 1848–1878 (1999) and The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century (2000). 1 ‘A sweeping synopsis for the history buff.’ Philadelphia Inquirer ‘Students of history are fortunate to have Grenville’s monumental history available.’ Ronald H. Fritze, American Reference Books Annual ‘Follows a relatively new trend among historians to abandon their sometimes narrow parochialism in favour of “world history” . . . This volume deals with more thematic issues like industrialization, the empowerment of women, the rise of environmental concerns and multinational corporations.’ Foreign Affairs ‘Magnificently detailed, brilliantly written . . . An extraordinarily readable global history.’ Parade Magazine ‘This book by the masterful international relations historian, Grenville, already finds primacy of place in the reading lists of most university courses as the single definitive history of this century.’ The Journal of the United Service Institution of India A HISTORY OF THE WORLD FROM THE 20th TO THE 21st CENTURY J. A. S. Grenville 1 The first half of this work was originally published in an earlier form as A World History of the Twentieth Century Volume I: Western Dominance, 1900–45 by Fontana Press, 1980 Earlier editions of this work were published as The Collins History of the World in the Twentieth Century by HarperCollins, 1994, 1998, and in the USA and Canada as A History of the World in the 20th Century by the Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1994, 2000 This edition published 2005 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 1980, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2005 J. A. S. Grenville The right of J. A. S. Grenville to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Grenville, J. A. S. (John Ashley Soames), 1928– A history of the world from the twentieth to the twenty-first century/ J.A.S. Grenville. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: A history of the world in the twentieth century/J.A.S. Grenville. Enl. ed. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. History, Modern – 20th century. 2. History, Modern – 21st century. I. Grenville, J. A. S. (John Ashley Soames), 1928– History of the world in the twentieth century. II. Title. D421.G647 2005 909.82–dc22 2004015939 ISBN 0–415–28954–8 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–28955–6 (pbk) This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” ISBN 0-203-64176-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-67494-4 (Adobe eReader Format) List of figures viii List of maps ix Acknowledgements x Preface xi Prologue: the world from the 20th to the 21st century 1 I SOCIAL CHANGE AND NATIONAL RIVALRY IN EUROPE, 1900–14 15 1 Hereditary foes and uncertain allies 17 2 The British Empire: premonition of decline 33 3 The last decades of the multinational Russian and Habsburg Empires 41 4 Over the brink: the five-week crisis, 28 June–1 August 1914 54 II BEYOND EUROPE: THE SHIFTING BALANCE OF GLOBAL POWER 63 5 The emergence of the US as a world power 65 6 China in disintegration, 1900–29 73 7 The emergence of Japan, 1900–29 80 III THE GREAT WAR, REVOLUTION AND THE SEARCH FOR STABILITY 87 8 The Great War I: war without decision, 1914–16 89 9 War and revolution in the East, 1917 100 10 The Great War II: the end of war in the West, 1917–18 109 11 Peacemaking in an unstable world, 1918–23 114 12 Democracy on trial: Weimar Germany 127 13 Britain, France and the US from war to peace 133 14 Italy and the rise of fascism 143 IV THE CONTINUING WORLD CRISIS, 1929–39 151 15 The Depression, 1929–39 153 16 Soviet Russia: ‘communism in transition’ 168 17 The failure of parliamentary democracy in Germany and the rise of Hitler, 1920–34 181 18 The mounting conflict in eastern Asia, 1928–37 194 19 The crumbling peace, 1933–6 204 20 The Spanish Civil War and Europe, 1936–9 213 21 The outbreak of war in Europe, 1937–9 220 V THE SECOND WORLD WAR 239 22 Germany’s wars of conquest in Europe, 1939–41 241 23 The China War and the origins of the Pacific War, 1937–41 255 24 The ordeal of the Second World War 263 1 CONTENTS 25 The victory of the Allies, 1941–5 276 VI POST-WAR EUROPE, 1945–7 307 26 Zero hour: the Allies and the Germans 309 27 The Soviet Union: the price of victory and the expanding empire 319 28 Britain and the world: a legacy too heavy to bear 328 29 France: a veil over the past 338 30 Italy: the enemy forgiven 345 VII THE UNITED STATES AND THE BEGINNING OF THE COLD WAR, 1945–8 351 31 The United States: a reluctant world power 353 32 1948: crisis in Europe – Prague and Berlin 369 VIII THE TRANSFORMATION OF ASIA, 1945–55 377 33 The struggle for independence: the Philippines, Malaya, Indonesia and Indo-China 379 34 India: from the Raj to independence, 1947 390 35 China: the end of civil war and the victory of the communists 398 36 1950: crisis in Asia – war in Korea 405 IX THE ENDING OF EUROPEAN DOMINANCE IN THE MIDDLE EAST, 1919–80 415 37 A profile of the Middle East 417 38 The Middle East between two world wars, 1919–45 422 39 Britain, Israel and the Arabs, 1945–9 431 40 1956: crisis in the Middle East – Suez 438 41 The struggle for predominance in the Middle East 453 X THE COLD WAR: SUPERPOWER CONFRONTATION, 1948–64 467 42 The rise of Khrushchev: the Soviet Union and the West 469 43 Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: the Polish challenge and the Hungarian Rising 477 44 The fall of Khrushchev: the Soviet Union and the wider world 481 45 The Eisenhower years: caution at home and containment abroad 486 XI THE RECOVERY OF WESTERN EUROPE IN THE 1950s AND 1960s 501 46 West Germany: economic growth and political stability 503 47 The French Fourth Republic: economic growth and political instability 514 48 The War of Algerian Independence: the Fifth Republic and the return of de Gaulle 524 49 Britain: better times and retreat from empire 535 50 The tribulations and successes of Italian democracy 547 XII WHO WILL LIBERATE THE THIRD WORLD? 1954–68 555 51 America’s mission in the world: the Eisenhower and Kennedy years, 1954–63 557 52 On the brink of a nuclear holocaust: the Cuban missile crisis, October 1962 567 53 The limits of power: the US during the 1960s 577 XIII TWO FACES OF ASIA: AFTER 1949 587 54 Turmoil, war and bloodshed in south-east Asia 589 55 The Vietnam War and after 601 56 Continuous revolution: Mao’s China 607 57 The last years of Mao and his heirs: the revolution changes course 616 58 Freedom and conflict in the Indian subcontinent: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 629 59 The prosperous Pacific Rim I: Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and South Korea 644 vi CONTENTS 60 The prosperous Pacific Rim II: Australia and New Zealand 664 XIV LATIN AMERICA AFTER 1945: PROBLEMS UNRESOLVED 679 61 The world of Latin America 681 62 Central America in revolution: Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, Panama and Mexico 706 XV AFRICA AFTER 1945: CONFLICT AND THE THREAT OF FAMINE 719 63 The end of white rule in West Africa 721 64 Freedom and conflict in Central and East Africa 738 65 War and famine in the Horn of Africa 748 66 Southern Africa: from white supremacy to democracy 754 XVI THE UNITED STATES AND THE SOVIET BLOC AFTER 1963: THE GREAT TRANSFORMATION 777 67 The Soviet Union and the wider world, the Brezhnev years: crushing the Prague Spring and the failure of reform 779 68 The United States: from great aspirations to disillusion 789 69 The Soviet Union, crisis and reform: Gorbachev, Yeltsin and Putin 797 70 The United States, global power: Reagan, Bush and Clinton 814 XVII WESTERN EUROPE GATHERS STRENGTH: AFTER 1968 829 71 The German Federal Republic: reaching maturity 831 72 Contemporary Italy: progress despite politics 843 73 How to make Britain more prosperous: Conservative and Labour remedies 849 74 The revival of France 864 75 The European Community 874 XVIII GLOBAL CHANGE: FROM THE 20th TO 21st CENTURY 885 76 The Iron Curtain disintegrates: the death of communism in Eastern Europe 887 77 Continuing turmoil and war in the Middle East 903 78 The wars of Yugoslavia: a requiem 918 79 The ‘war on terror’ 927 80 Into the new millennium: the twenty-first century 944 Suggestions for further reading 958 Index 976 1 CONTENTS vii Nicholas II with his family 45 French soldiers to arms, 1914 60 German soldiers, to Paris, 1914 60 Immigrants waiting in America 66 Lenin addressing a small street gathering 104 The Versailles conference 117 Mussolini in heroic pose 149 New Yorkers mill around Wall Street 154 An unemployed German war veteran 155 The Great Communicator. President Franklin D. Roosevelt 165 Stalin at a collective farm in Tajikistan 178 Prussian honour allied to new barbarism 182 The fascist salute greets General Franco 216 Militia coming to the aid of the Republic 217 Viennese Jews scrub paving stones 226 Hitler and Mussolini, 1938 232 Chamberlain waves the Anglo-German Agreement 233 A war leader. Winston Churchill, 1941 244 1940. A surprise visit 251 Survivors of the Warsaw ghetto rising 267 9 August 1945. The mushroom cloud over Nagasaki 274 Lucky those who were killed outright 275 African Americans served in the armed forces 280 A warm welcome for a GI in Belfort 291 The Potsdam Conference, 1945 300 Devastated Dresden 310 Jews from a concentration camp 311 Booty for the Russian meets resistance 313 The reconstruction of western Europe 367 Ernest Bevin, Britain’s foreign secretary 368 The allied airlift 373 Gandhi and his followers 392 7 June 1947. Lord Mountbatten 395 Seoul, or what’s left of it, in 1950 410 US marines are caught by surprise 410 David Ben Gurion proclaims the State of Israel 436 Iran, February 1979 465 Two leaders 484 Adenauer campaigning in Bamberg 506 The ‘Special Relationship’ 545 Martin Luther King 579 The march on Washington 580 The image that depicted humiliation 605 Beijing demonstrators, 1989 623 Japanese emperor Hirohito 645 Homeless children huddle together 684 Nigerian civil war victims, 1967 734 Famine in Ethiopia, 1984 744 The realities of apartheid 766 Johannesburg, South Africa 771 Nelson Mandela 772 A historic handshake on the White House lawn 795 Yeltsin, 1991 807 No longer the ‘evil empire’ 819 Students distribute underground literature 832 The Gaza Strip 910 The UN in a non-combatant role 922 New York, World Trade Center 928 Tony Blair, 1997 933 Rwandan genocide, 1994 945 FIGURES The British, French and German world empires, c.1900 8 Europe in 1914 58 The Americas 71 China and Japan in Asia, 1900 78 The western front, 1914 90 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918 107 Peace settlements, 1919–23 119 The Middle East, 1926 125 The Spanish Civil War, 1936 219 The expansion of Germany, January 1935–October 1939 228 Japan’s war in Asia, 1937–45 257 War in the Pacific, 1943–5 272 The German invasion of Russia, 1941–2 281 Defeat of Italy and Germany, July 1943– May 1945 290 The occupation zones of Germany and Austria, 1945 297 Europe after 1945 302 The Middle East, 1960–2 454 Israel and the Arab states after 1967 460 South-east Asia, 1960 591 India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, 1972 636 Asia, 1991 660 The emergence of independence in Africa, 1970 723 The Russian Federation and new states of the former Soviet Union, 1992 809 Germany, 1945–90 838 Europe, 1993 888 The break-up of Yugoslavia, 1991–5 899 The partition of Bosnia, 1995 923 1 MAPS The author and publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce material: akg-images; Antoine Gyori/Corbis Sygma; Associated Press, AP; Bettmann/Corbis; Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; Chris Steele-Perkins/Magnum Photos; Corbis; Erich Lessing/Magnum Photos; Ferdinando Scianna/ Magnum Photos; Hulton-Deutsch Collection; Ian Berry/Magnum Photos; Leonard Freed/Magnum Photos; National Archives, Washington; Patrick Zachmann/Magnum Photos; Peter Turnley/ Corbis; Rex Features; Reuters/Corbis; Robert Capa R/Magnum Photos; Sean Aidan, Eye Ubiquitous/Corbis; Underwood & Underwood Corbis. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A history of our world over the past century is more fascinating than fiction, filled with drama, the unexpected overtaking events. The lives of millions on every continent have been shaped by changes that occurred. Our world is one of vibrant cultures and different paths of develop- ment, a world of gross inequalities, greater than ever. But how is a world history to be written, from what perspective? Inevitably this world history has a Western perspective, but avoids the lofty generalisations of briefer accounts. Basic facts – who has time for them? But without sufficient detail interpretations are imposed and readers are in no position to form judgements of their own. A longer account need not be read all at once, detail need not deaden but can provide insights and bring history to life. Our world is closely interrelated. Today, the US exceeds in power and wealth all other coun- tries, its outreach is global. Economies and trade are interlinked. Visual and audio communication can be sent from one part of the world to another in an instant. The Internet is virtually universal. Mass travel by air and sea is commonplace. The environment is also of global concern. Migration has created multinational cultures. Does this not lead to the conclusion that a world history should be written from a global perspective and that the nation state should no longer dominate? Is world history a distinctive discipline? Stimulating accounts have been based on this premise, as if viewing history from outer space. Undeniably there are global issues, but claims that the age of the nation state is past are premature and to ignore its influence in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries obscures an understanding of the past and the present. The US does have the ability to intervene all over the globe but here too limits of power apply; US policy is based on its national interests as are the policies of other nations. There is global cooper- ation where it suits national interests but nothing like world government. National interests also contribute to the gross inequalities of wealth between different regions of the world, in the twenty-first century greater than ever. An end to history is not in sight either. It has been argued that the conflict of ideology is past and that ‘democracy’ and the ‘free enterprise market economy’ have triumphed. But these are labels capable of many interpretations. Further- more, to base history on such a conclusion is taking the Western perspective to extremes. Dif- ferent paths of development have dominated the past and will not disappear in the future. That is why this book still emphasises the importance of nations interacting, of national histories and of the distinctive cultural development of regions. While endeavouring not to ignore global issues, they are therefore not seen as the primary cause of change, of peace and war, wealth and poverty. The book is based on my reading over the past thirty years, more works of scholarship than I can reasonably list and, for current affairs, on major 1 PREFACE periodicals such as The Economist, Time, News- week, the daily press, broadcasts and a limited amount of foreign news as well as the Internet. But I have also derived immense benefit from dis- cussions with colleagues and students in Britain and abroad. I cannot mention them all individu- ally and must make do here with a collective thank you. But some people have helped so much that I would like to express my appreciation to them individually – to my agent Bruce Hunter, of David Highams, who oversees my relations with publishers, to Victoria Peters of the Routledge publishers Taylor & Francis, to Pauline Roberts, my personal secretary, who now for many years has encouraged me and turned with skill and endless patience, hand-written pages into well- presented discs. Above all, to Patricia my wife, who has allowed me the space to write and provided spiritual and physical sustenance. Technical note: First, some basic statistics are provided of population, trade and industry in vari- ous countries for purposes of comparison. They are often taken for granted. Authorities frequently disagree on these in detail; they should, therefore, be regarded as indicative rather than absolutely precise. A comparison of standards of living between countries is not an exact science. I have given per-capita figures of the gross national product (GNP) as a very rough guide; but these represent only averages in societies where differen- tials of income may be great; furthermore, they are expressed in US dollars and so are dependent on exchange rates; actual costs of living also vary widely between countries; the per-capita GNP cannot, therefore, be simply translated into com- parative standards of living and provide but a rough guide. The purchasing parity guide in US dollars is an improvement but, again, can only be viewed as indicative. Second, the transliteration from Chinese to Roman lettering presents special problems. The Pinyin system of romanisation was officially adopted by China on 1 January 1979 for international use, replacing the Wade-Giles sys- tem. Thus, where Wade-Giles had Mao Tse-tung and Teng Hsaio-ping, Pinyin gives Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. For clarity’s sake, the usage in this book is not entirely consistent: the chosen form is Pinyin, but Wade-Giles is kept for certain older names where it is more easily recognisable, for example Shanghai, Chiang Kaishek and the Kuomintang. Peking changes to the Pinyin form Beijing after the communist takeover. The Institute for German Studies, The University of Birmingham, September 2004 xii PREFACE Historical epochs do not coincide strictly with centuries. The French Revolution in 1789, not the year 1800, marked the beginning of a new historical era. The beginning of the twentieth century, too, is better dated to 1871, when Ger- many became unified, or the 1890s, when inter- national instability became manifest in Europe and Asia and a new era of imperial rivalry, which the Germans called Weltpolitik, began. On the European continent Germany had become by far the most powerful military nation and was rapidly advancing industrially. In eastern Asia during the 1890s a modernised Japan waged its first successful war of aggression against China. In the Americas the foundations were laid for the emer- gence of the US as a superpower later in the century. The US no longer felt secure in isola- tion. Africa was finally partitioned between the European powers. These were some of the portents indicating the great changes to come. There were many more. Modernisation was creating new industrial and political conflict and dividing society. The state was becoming more centralised, its bureaucracy grew and achieved control to an increasing degree over the lives of the individual. Social tensions were weakening the tsarist Russian Empire and during the first decade of the twentieth century Russia was defeated by Japan. The British Empire was at bay and Britain was seeking support, not certain which way to turn. Fierce nationalism, the build-up of vast armies and navies, and unquestioned patriotism that regarded war as an opportunity to prove manhood rather than as a catastrophe, characterised the mood as the new century began. Boys played with their tin soldiers and adults dressed up in the finery of uniforms. The rat-infested mud of the trenches and machine guns mowing down tens of thousands of young men as yet lay beyond the imagination. Soldiering was still glorious, chivalrous and glamorous. But the early twentieth century also held the promise of a better and more civilised life in the future. In the Western world civilisation was held to consist not only of cultural achievements but also of moral values. Despite all the rivalries of the Western nations, wanton massacres of ethnic minorities, such as that of the Armenians by the Turks in the 1890s, aroused widespread revul- sion and prompted great-power intervention. The pogroms in Russia and Romania against the Jews were condemned by civilised peoples, including the Germans, who offered help and refuge despite the growth of anti-Semitism at home. The Dreyfus affair outraged Queen Victoria and prompted Émile Zola to mobilise a powerful protest movement in France; the Captain’s accusers were regarded as representing the corrupt elements of the Third Republic. Civilisation to contemporary observers seemed to be moving forward. Before 1914 there was no good reason to doubt that history was the story of mankind’s progress, especially that of the white European branch. 1 1 PROLOGUE THE WORLD FROM THE 20th TO THE 21st CENTURY There was a sense of cultural affinity among the aristocracy and bourgeoisie of Europe. Governed by monarchs who were related to each other and who tended to reign for long periods or, in France, by presidents who changed too frequently to be remembered for long, the well- to-do felt at home anywhere in Europe. The upper reaches of society were cosmopolitan, dis- porting themselves on the Riviera, in Paris and in Dresden; they felt that they had much in common and that they belonged to a superior civilisation. Some progress was real. Increasingly, provision was made to help the majority of the people who were poor, no doubt in part to cut the ground from under socialist agitators and in part in response to trade union and political pressures brought about by the widening franchise in the West. Pensions and insurance for workers were first instituted in Germany under Bismarck and spread to most of the rest of Western Europe. Medical care, too, improved in the expanding cities. Limits were set on the hours and kind of work children were allowed to perform. Universal education became the norm. The advances made in the later nineteenth century were in many ways extended after 1900. Democracy was gaining ground in the new century. The majority of men were enfranchised in Western Europe and the US. The more enlightened nations understood that good government required a relationship of consent between those who made the laws and the mass of the people who had to obey them. The best way to secure cooperation was through the process of popularly elected parliamentary assem- blies that allowed the people some influence – government by the will of the majority, at least in appearance. The Reichstag, the French Cham- bers, the Palace of Westminster, the two Houses of Congress, the Russian Duma, all met in splendid edifices intended to reflect their import- ance. In the West the trend was thus clearly estab- lished early in the twentieth century against arbitrary rule. However much national constitu- tions differed, another accepted feature of the civilised polity was the rule of law, the provision of an independent judiciary meting out equal justice to rich and poor, the powerful and the weak. Practice might differ from theory, but justice was presented as blindfolded: justice to all, without favours to any. Equal rights were not universal in the West. Working people were struggling to form effective unions so that, through concerted strike action, they could overcome their individual weakness when bargaining for decent wages and condi- tions. Only a minority, though, were members of a union. In the US in 1900, only about 1 million out of more than 27 million workers belonged to a labour union. Unions in America were male dominated and, just as in Britain, women had to form their own unions. American unions also excluded most immigrants and black workers. Ethnic minorities were discriminated against even in a political system such as that of the US, which prided itself as the most advanced democ- racy in the world. Reconstruction after the Civil War had bitterly disappointed the African Ameri- cans in their hopes of gaining equal rights. Their claims to justice remained a national issue for much of the twentieth century. All over the world there was discrimination against a group that accounted for half the earth’s population – women. It took the American suf- fragette movement half a century to win, in 1920, the right to vote. In Britain the agitation for women’s rights took the drastic form of public demonstrations after 1906, but not until 1918 did women over thirty years of age gain the vote, and those aged between twenty-one and thirty had to wait even longer. But the acceptance of votes for women in the West had already been signposted before the First World War. New Zealand in 1893 was the first country to grant women the right to vote in national elections; Australia followed in 1908. But even as the twenty-first century begins there are countries in the Middle East where women are denied this basic right. Moreover, this struggle represents only the tip of the iceberg of discrimination against women on issues such as education, entry into the professions, property rights and equal pay for equal work. Incomplete as emancipa- tion remains in Western societies, there are many countries in Asia, Latin America, Africa and the Middle East where women are still treated as 2 PROLOGUE