sixth edition A History of tHe romAn PeoPle Allen m. Ward University of Connecticut fritz m. Heichelheim Cedric A. yeo First published 2014, 2010, 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2003 Taylor & Francis All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text. Cover Designer: Suzanne Duda ISBN-13: 978-0-205-84679-5 (pbk) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ward, Allen Mason. A history of the Roman people/Allen M. Ward (University of Connecticut), Fritz M. Heichelheim, Cedric A. Yeo.—Sixth Edition pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-84679-5 1. Rome—History. I. Heichelheim, Fritz M. (Fritz Moritz), 1901–1968. II. Yeo, Cedric A. III. Title. DG209.W33 2014 937—dc23 2013008137 Contents Maps and Illustrations xv Preface xvii I Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations 1 Introduction to Roman History 1 The Peoples of Italy ca. 750 to 400 b.c. 7 Geography 1 The Greater Picture 10 The Peoples and Cultures of Pre-Roman Italy 4 II Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans in Pre-Roman Italy 11 The Phoenicians 11 Etruscan Cities and Their Sociopolitical Tyre and Its Colonies 13 Organization 19 Greek Colonization 14 Women and the Etruscan Family 20 Decline of the Greek Cities in Italy and Sicily 15 Etruscan Culture and Religion 20 The Etruscans 15 Etruscan Art and Architecture 22 The Land of the Etruscans 17 The Role of the Etruscans in Roman History 26 Sources for Etruscan History 18 The Fate of the Etruscans 26 Etruscan Economic Life 18 Overview 27 III Early Rome to 500 b.c. 28 The Ancient Literary Tradition and Its Sources 28 The Early Roman State 35 Reconstructing Early Roman History 30 The General Picture 39 v vi Contents IV Early Roman Society, Religion, and Values 40 The Principle of Hierarchy 40 The Openness of Early Roman Society to The Family 40 Outsiders 48 Patrons and Clients 45 Early Roman Religion 48 Slaves and Freedmen 45 The State, Religion, and War 53 Roman Names and the Gens 45 The Values of Early Roman Society 53 Classes in Roman Society 47 Overview and Significance 55 V From Tyrant Kings to Oligarchic Republic, 509 to 287 b.c. 56 Sources of Information for Early Republican The Dynamics of Change, 509 to 287 b.c. 63 History 57 Growing Plebeian Identity and Rights, ca. 500 to From Kingship to Republic, ca. 510 to ca. 400 b.c. 64 ca. 490 b.c. 58 A New Period of Reform, 367 to 287 b.c. 68 The Early Form of the Republic 59 The Oligarchic Realities of the The Priesthoods and Priestly Roman Republican Constitution Colleges 61 after 287 b.c. 72 VI The Roman Conquest of Italy and Its Impact, 509 to 264 b.c. 75 Conflicts with Immediate Neighbors 75 The Pyrrhic Wars and the Conquest of Peninsular The Gallic Sack of Rome 77 Italy 81 Up from Defeat 77 The Manipular Army 83 Initial Conquests in Central Italy 78 The Economic, Social, and Cultural Impact of The Roman System of Alliances and Citizen Roman Expansion in Italy by 264 b.c. 84 Communities 79 Rome’s Rise Surveyed and Explained 88 Renewed War and Conquests in Central Italy 80 VII The First Punic War, Northern Italy, and Illyrian Pirates, 264 to 219 b.c. 90 Sources for Roman History from 264 to The Truceless War and Roman Trickery, 241 to 133 b.c. 90 238 b.c. 99 A New Chapter in Rome’s Expansion 92 Roman Conquests in Northern Italy 99 Carthage 92 The Pirates of Illyria, 229 and Sicily and the Outbreak of the First Punic War, 228 b.c. 100 264 b.c. 94 Renewed War with the Gauls, Initial Carthaginian Setbacks, 263 and 225 to 220 b.c. 100 262 b.c. 96 Pirates Again, 220 to 219 b.c. 101 Expansion of the War 96 Rome’s Rise as a Mediterranean Power A Titanic Struggle, 260 to 241 b.c. 96 Surveyed 101 Contents vii VIII War with Hannibal: The Second Punic War, 218 to 201 b.c. 102 Carthaginian Recovery after 238 b.c. 102 The Roman Recovery 108 The Ebro Treaty 103 The First Macedonian War, 215 to 205 b.c. 108 Hannibal and the Outbreak of the Second Punic The War in Spain, 218 to 211 b.c. 109 War 103 Scipio Africanus 109 Causes of the Second Punic War 104 The Battle at the Metaurus and the Death of Hannibal’s War Strategy 105 Hasdrubal, 207 b.c. 109 Roman War Plans 105 The End Approaches 110 Hannibal’s March to the Alps 105 The Battle of Zama (Naraggara), 202 b.c. 111 Hannibal’s Early Victories, 218 and 217 b.c. 106 Peace Terms 111 Fabius Maximus, Cunctator, 217 b.c. 107 Overview and Reasons for Roman Success 111 The Battle of Cannae, 216 b.c. 107 Aftermath and the Fate of Hannibal 111 Further Carthaginian Successes 108 IX Roman Imperialism East and West, 200 to 133 b.c. 112 Provincial Governors 112 Rome and the Hellenistic East after Pydna Roman Imperialism in the East 113 (168 b.c.) 120 Antiochus III (the Great) of Syria and Philip V of Roman Imperialism in the West, 200 to Macedon 114 133 b.c. 122 The Second Macedonian War, 200 to 196 b.c. 115 Northern Italy 122 The Aggressions of Antiochus III (the Great), 196 Successes and Failures in Spain 123 to 192 b.c. 117 The Third Punic War, 149 to 146 b.c. 124 The War with Antiochus III (the Great), 192 to The Viriathic and Numantine Wars in Spain, 188 b.c. 118 151 to 133 b.c. 127 The Third Macedonian War, 171 to 168/167 b.c. 119 Overview and Assessment 127 X The Transformation of Roman Life, 264 to 133 b.c. 129 The Impact of War and Overseas Expansion on Social Change and Discontent 133 Small Farmers 129 Political Developments 139 Coinage and the Monetization of the Overview and Assessment 142 Economy 131 The Growth of Trade, Cities, Industry, and Commerce 132 XI The Great Cultural Synthesis, 264 to 133 b.c. 143 Architecture and Art 143 Law 150 Literature 144 Religion 151 Specialization in Genres 146 Education 152 Prose Literature 147 Overview and Prospect 152 Philosophy 149 viii Contents XII The Gracchi and the Struggle over Reforms, 133 to 121 b.c. 154 Sources for the Period of the Gracchi, 133 to Gaius Gracchus, Tribune of the Plebs, 123 to 121 b.c. 154 122 b.c. 160 Mounting Problems 154 The Reforms of Gaius Gracchus 161 The Tribuneship of Tiberius Gracchus, Livius Drusus 163 133 b.c. 155 The Fall and Death of Gaius Gracchus 163 Tiberius’ Motives 157 The Popularis Political Legacy of the The Land Commission and Its Impact 159 Gracchi 164 Rome’s Allies and the Death of Scipio 159 XIII Destructive Rivalries, Marius, and the Social War, 121 to 88 b.c. 165 Sources for the Period from 121 to 88 b.c. 165 The Slave Revolt in Sicily, 104 to 100 b.c. 171 Populares and Optimates 165 Piracy in the Eastern Mediterranean 171 The Senatus Consultum Ultimum 166 The Political Fall of Marius 172 Post-Gracchan Land Legislation 167 A Decade of Optimate Domination 173 Other Internal Matters 167 The Explosive Reforms of M. Livius Drusus the The Imperial Background to Domestic Younger, 91 b.c. 174 Politics 167 The Italian, or Social, War, 90 to 88 b.c. 174 The Popularis Rise of Gaius Marius (157 to The Aftermath of the Social War 175 86 b.c.) 169 XIV Civil War and Sulla’s Reactionary Settlement, 88 to 78 b.c. 176 Sources for the Years 88 to 78 b.c. 176 Cinna’s Time (Cinnanum Tempus) 179 Mithridates VI Eupator (134 to 63 b.c.) 176 Sulla and the East, 87 to 84 b.c. 179 The Rise of Sulla (138 to 78 b.c.) 177 Sulla’s Return to Italy, 83 to 82 b.c. 180 Cinna’s Consulship, 87 b.c. 178 Sulla’s Reign of Terror, 82 b.c. 180 Marius and His Reign of Terror 178 Sulla’s Dictatorship and Political Reforms 181 The Significance of Marius 179 The Failure of Sulla 183 XV Personal Ambitions: The Failure of Sulla’s Optimate Oligarchy, 78 to 60 b.c. 184 Sources for Roman History from 78 to 30 b.c. 184 The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus, The Rise of Pompey the Great (106 to 48 b.c.), 70 b.c. 189 78 to 71 b.c. 185 Cicero Gains Fame in the Trial of Verres, The Great (Third) Mithridatic War (74/73 to 70 b.c. 190 63 b.c.) and Lucullus’ Bid for Glory, 74 to Tribunes Make Their Marks, and Pompey 66 b.c. 187 Takes Control of the East, 67 to 62 b.c. 191 Crassus Seeks Advantage in the Slave War against Rome in the Absence of Pompey 194 Spartacus in Italy, 73 to 71 b.c. 188 After Pompey’s Return, 62 to 60 b.c. 198 Contents ix XVI Caesar Wins and Is Lost, 60 to 44 b.c. 200 Caesar Partners with Pompey and Crassus, 60 to Rivalry and Civil War between Caesar and 58 b.c. 201 Pompey, 53 to 48 b.c. 207 Gaul and the Foundation of Caesar’s Might, Caesar’s Dictatorships and Final Victory, 58 to 56 b.c. 203 48 to 45 b.c. 210 Disorder at Rome and a Renewed Partnership, Caesar’s Work of Reconstruction 213 58 to 56 b.c. 204 The Assassination of Julius Caesar, March 15, Caesar Overcomes Challenges in Gaul, 56 to 44 b.c. 215 52 b.c. 205 The Question of Monarchy 215 Caesar’s Partners Strive to Keep Up, 56 to The Significance of Caesar 216 53 b.c. 206 XVII The Last Years of the Republic, 44 to 30 b.c. 217 Marcus Antonius Tries to Take Control, 44 to The Approach and Renewal of Civil War, 32 to 43 b.c. 217 30 b.c. 227 The Triumvirate of Octavian, Antonius, and The End of the Republic 229 Lepidus, 43 to 36 b.c. 221 Antonius and Cleopatra Rule the East, 37 to 32 b.c. 226 XVIII Social, Economic, and Cultural Life in the Late Republic, ca. 133 to ca. 30 b.c. 231 Land, Veterans, and Rural Life 231 Art and Architecture 244 Industry and Commerce 232 Late Republican Literature from the Gracchi to The Concentration of Wealth 234 Sulla 245 Life for the Urban Poor 235 The Novi Poetae 246 Slaves and Freedmen 236 Catullus (ca. 85 to ca. 54 b.c.) 246 Italians and Provincials 237 Lucretius (ca. 94 to ca. 55 b.c.) 247 Women in the Late Republic 238 Cicero (106 to 43 b.c.) 247 New Waves of Hellenization 240 Sallust (86 to ca. 34 b.c.) 247 Education 240 Caesar (100 to 44 b.c.) 248 Law and the Legal System 241 Scholarship and Patriotic Antiquarianism 248 The Religious World of the Late Republic 242 The Cultural Legacy of the Late Republic 249 Greek Philosophy and the Roman Elite 243 XIX The Principate of the Early Roman Empire Takes Shape, 29 b.c. to a.d. 14 250 Sources for the Augustan Principate 250 Octavian’s Advantages 251 Hopes for Peace 250 The Evolving Constitutional Arrangements of the Problems to be Faced 250 Principate 252 x Contents The Nature of the Principate 256 Religious Reforms 261 The Creation of a Central Administration 257 Overview and Assessment 262 Social Reforms 260 XX Imperial Stabilization under Augustus 263 Military Reforms 263 Road Building 272 Protection of the Emperor 265 The Imperial Post (Cursus Publicus) 272 Fiscal Reforms 265 Colonization 272 Provincial Reforms 266 Urbanization of the Provinces 274 Conquests in the West 267 Growth of the Imperial Cult 274 Solidifying Control of the Balkans, Crete, and The Problem of Succession 274 Cyrene 270 The Death of Augustus 278 Holding the East 270 XXI The Impact of Augustus on Roman Imperial Life and Culture 279 The Population and Economic Impact Vergil (70 to 19 b.c.) 288 of Rome 279 Horace (65 to 8 b.c.) 289 Agriculture 280 The Latin Elegists 290 Agricultural Wealth and Urbanization 280 Latin Prose Writers 291 Cities of Italy and the Empire 280 The Impact of Augustus on Latin Literature 292 Nonagricultural Trade and Industry 281 Greek Writers 292 The Roman Imperial Coinage 283 Scholarly and Technical Writings 293 Architecture and Art 284 Law and Jurisprudence 293 Literature 288 The Augustan Achievement 293 XXII The First Two Julio–Claudian Emperors: Tiberius and Gaius (Caligula), a.d. 14 to 41 294 Sources for the Julio–Claudians 294 Gaius Caligula (a.d. 37 to 41) 302 Tiberius (a.d. 14 to 37) 296 A Popular Princeps at First 303 Germanicus and Agrippina 297 Problems in the Palace 303 Livia 298 Tensions with the Senate 304 Sejanus 299 Caligula’s Military Operations 304 The Law of Treason (Maiestas) 299 Fiscal Problems 304 Tiberius and the Senate: The Increasing Power of Caligula’s Foreign and Provincial Policies 304 the Princeps 300 Caligula’s Religious Policies 305 Tiberius the Administrator 301 Caligula’s Assassination 305 Tiberius’ Last Years and the Succession 302 Overview and Prospect 305 XXIII Claudius, Nero, and the End of the Julio–Claudians, a.d. 41 to 68 306 Claudius (a.d. 41 to 54) 306 Foreign Policy and Imperial Defense 309 The Political Philosophy and Policies of Colonization, Urbanization, and Romanization in Claudius 307 the Provinces 310 Contents xi Claudius’ Wives 310 Growing Hostility Toward Nero 313 Claudius’ Death and the Succession of Nero Plots against the Throne 315 (a.d. 54 to 68) 311 Prelude to a Fall 315 Nero Surveyed 311 The Jewish Revolt and the Fall of Nero 316 The Darker Side of Nero’s Early Reign 312 Afterword 316 Nero Asserts Himself 313 XXIV The Crisis of the Principate and Recovery under the Flavians, a.d. 69 to 96 317 Sources 317 The Expansion of Executive Power 322 Galba (68 to 69) 318 Fiscal Administration 322 Otho (69) 318 Public Expenditures 323 Vitellius (69) 318 The Opposition to Vespasian 323 Vespasian (69 to 79) 319 Vespasian’s Death, 79 323 The Restoration of Peace 320 Titus (79 to 81) 324 Reform of the Army 321 Domitian (81 to 96) 324 Provincial Policy 321 War and Rebellion, 82 to 93 325 The Near East 322 Fear, Purges, and the Murder of Domitian, Vespasian’s Relations with the Senate 322 89 to 96 326 XXV The Five “Good” Emperors of the Second Century, a.d. 96 to 180 327 Sources 327 The Jewish Revolt 333 Nerva (96 to 98) 328 New Directions under Hadrian 333 Trajan (98 to 117) 328 The Last Years of Hadrian 336 A Model Emperor 329 Antoninus Pius (138 to 161) 336 Trajan’s Wars 329 Faustina the Elder 337 The Death of Trajan, 117 330 Maintaining the Status Quo 337 The Empress Plotina 331 The Legacy of Antoninus 338 The Effects of Trajan’s Wars 331 Marcus Aurelius (161 to 180) 338 Hadrian (117 to 138) 331 Marcus Aurelius as Emperor and Soldier 339 The Early Years of Hadrian’s Principate 332 The Question of Succession 341 Hadrian’s Travels 332 Problems for the Future 342 XXVI Culture, Society, and Economy in the First Two Centuries a.d. 343 Post-Augustan Imperial Literature 343 Resurgence of Literature under the Five “Good” Poverty of Literature under Tiberius and Emperors 348 Caligula 344 Resurgence of Greek Literature 350 The Blossoming of the Silver Age in Literature The Second Sophistic 351 under Claudius and Nero 345 Christian Writers 351 Technical Writing and Scholarship 346 Philosophy 352 Science and Medicine 347 General Religious Trends 352 Philology and Literary Scholarship 348 Judaism 353 Lack of Great Literature under the Flavians, Mystery Cults 353 a.d. 69 to 96 348 Christianity 354