A HANDBOOK FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND TEACHER TRAINING THE LANGUAGE DIMENSION T H E L A IN ALL SUBJECTS This handbook is a policy and working document which N G promotes convergence and coherence between the U A linguistic dimensions of various school subjects. G E D It proposes measures to make explicit – in curricula, IM pedagogic material and teacher training – the specific E N linguistic norms and competences which learners S I O must master in each school subject. It also presents the N learning modalities that should allow all learners, and in IN particular the most vulnerable among them, to benefit A L from diversified language-learning situations in order to L S develop their cognitive and linguistic capacities. U B J E C T S Education Department Education Policy Division 6 1 4 Language Policy 19 0 S DG II – Directorate General of Democracy M E R Council of Europe P www.coe.int/lang ENG The Council of Europe is the continent’s leading Jean-Claude Beacco human rights organisation. It comprises 47 member Mike Fleming states, 28 of which are members of the European Francis Goullier www.coe.int Union. All Council of Europe member states have Eike Thürmann signed up to the European Convention on Human Helmut Vollmer Rights, a treaty designed to protect human rights, with contributions by Joseph Sheils democracy and the rule of law. The European Court of Human Rights oversees the implementation of the Convention in the member states. http://book.coe.int ISBN 978-92-871-8232-6 €28/US$56 9 789287 182326 A hAndbook for curriculum development And teAcher trAining THE LANGUAGE DIMENSION IN ALL SUBJECTS Jean-Claude Beacco Mike Fleming Francis Goullier Eike Thürmann Helmut Vollmer with contributions by Joseph Sheils Education Policy Division Language Policy Unit Education Department Directorate of Democratic Citizenship and Participation DGII – Directorate General of Democracy Council of Europe French edition: Les dimensions linguistiques de toutes les matières scolaires – Guide pour l’élaboration des curriculums et pour la formation des enseignants ISBN 978-92-871-8231-9 The opinions expressed in this work are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Council of Europe. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated, reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic (CD-Rom, Internet, etc.) or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the Directorate of Communication (F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex or [email protected]). Cover photo: Shutterstock Cover design: Documents and Publications Production Department (SPDP), Council of Europe Layout: Quorum Italia, Bari Council of Europe Publishing F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex http://book.coe.int ISBN 978-92-876-8232-6 © Council of Europe, October 2016 Printed at the Council of Europe Contents PrefaCe 5 IntroduCtIon 7 CHaPter 1: tHe language dImensIon In all subjeCts: an ImPortant Issue for qualIty and equIty In eduCatIon 11 1.1. The language of schooling – academic language use 11 1.2. Preparing and qualifying for the knowledge society 15 1.3. Equity and quality in education 16 CHaPter 2: tHe role of language In tHe ConstruCtIon and aPPlICatIon of knowledge 19 2.1. The role of language in knowledge building 19 2.2. The conventions of communication in science, technology and the humanities 20 2.3. Language and schooling 21 2.4. Academic language competence 22 2.5. Subject literacy 25 2.6. Implications for practice 27 CHaPter 3: forms of Classroom CommunICatIon and tHe aCquIsItIon of subjeCt-sPeCIfIC knowledge 29 3.1. Presentation by the teacher 30 3.2. Presentation with directed interaction (scripted lesson) 30 3.3. Questioning and discussion 31 3.4. Exchanges among pupils 31 3.5. Note-taking and summarising 32 3.6. Presentation by one or more pupils 32 3.7. Reading the textbook or authentic texts 32 3.8. Production of written texts 33 CHaPter 4: aCquIrIng a Command of aCademIC exPressIon 35 4.1. Objectives for different curriculum levels 35 4.2. Bridges between genres 35 4.3. Verbal characteristics of academic expression 38 CHaPter 5: language dIversIty, subjeCt lIteraCy and aCademIC aCHIevement 43 5.1. Points of departure 43 5.2. Achievement gaps, academic literacy and the advantages of content-based language learning 44 5.3. Provision for students with no or very limited proficiency in the dominant language of schooling 46 5.4. Provision for the development of academic literacy 48 5.5. Provision for the development of plurilingual competences 50 5.6. Resume and outlook 51 CHaPter 6: buIldIng uP a Command of tHe language of sCHoolIng durIng PrImary eduCatIon 53 6.1. The benefits of defining linguistic objectives 53 6.2. The “discursive leap” when children start school 55 6.3. Appropriate strategies for primary education 56 CHaPter 7: language as subjeCt 61 7.1. Approaches to language as subject 61 7.2. The dimensions of language as subject 63 7.3. Language varieties 65 7.4. Implications for practice 66 Page 3 CHaPter 8: subjeCt-sPeCIfIC language requIrements In seCondary eduCatIon 69 8.1. Subject-specific sensitivity and language education 69 8.2. Mathematics and its characteristic contribution to language education 70 8.3. Sciences and their characteristic contribution to language education 73 8.4. Social sciences and their characteristic language requirements 75 8.5. The role of scaffolding in language-sensitive content teaching 77 8.6. Challenges 79 CHaPter 9: teaCHIng aPProaCHes 81 9.1. Language and learning 82 9.2. Approaches to writing 82 9.3. Approaches to reading 85 9.4. Approaches to speaking and listening 86 9.5. Classroom culture 87 CHaPter 10: CurrICulum develoPment 89 10.1. Variety of approaches to curricula 90 10.2. Subject approach to curriculum design (micro level) 91 10.3. Formulating a national generic framework in Norway (macro level) 94 10.4. A structural approach to curriculum design in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany 96 10.5. Typology of procedures 99 CHaPter 11: tHe language dImensIon In InItIal teaCHer traInIng and ContInuous ProfessIonal develoPment 101 11.1. Teacher training and professional development on a supranational level 101 11.2. Teacher training and professional development on a national level 102 11.3. Language advisors and literacy coaches on a regional and local level 103 11.4. Bottom-up strategies for school and classroom development 104 CHaPter 12: tHe qualIty of traInIng related to tHe lInguIstIC dImensIons of subjeCt-sPeCIfIC teaCHIng 107 12.1. The overall quality of training: overall assessment criteria 107 12.2. Quality of the curriculum and evaluation of its implementation 108 12.3. Assessment of learning outcomes 110 ConClusIon 113 aPPendICes 115 Appendix 1: Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of competences in the language(s) of schooling for equity and quality in education and for educational success 117 Appendix 2: References and proposals for further reading 127 Appendix 3: Language-sensitive teaching of so-called non-language subjects: a checklist 133 Page 4 the language dimension in all subjects Preface M astering the language of schooling is essential for learners to develop the skills necessary for school success and for critical thinking. It is fundamental for participation in democratic societies, and for social inclusion and cohesion. This handbook is a valuable resource for education authorities and practitioners in Council of Europe member states. It will help them to reflect on their policy and practice in language education, and support them in developing responses to the current challenges of education systems. It has a strong practical orientation, but it also embodies key principles and values of the Council of Europe. It emerges directly from two recent recommendations of the Committee of Ministers. Recommendation CM/ Rec(2012)13 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on ensuring quality education emphasises the importance of preventing underachievement and draws attention to the key role of language in ensuring fairness in access to knowledge. Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of competences in the language(s) of schooling for equity and quality in education and for educational success highlights the importance of language not just as a separate subject in school, but in all subjects across the curriculum. The recommendations and proposed measures in the handbook will support education policy makers and professionals in their efforts to support migrant children as well as native speakers who may be at a disadvan- tage, and will contribute to raising the quality of education for all learners. I invite education policy deciders in our member states to raise awareness concerning the language dimen- sion in all school subjects and to support all professionals in charge of education in making this dimension explicit and transparent in curricula and in the whole teaching process. This will contribute to ensuring equity and quality in our education systems. Snežana Samardžić-Marković Director General of Democracy Council of Europe Page 5 Introduction I n April 2014, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe passed Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)5 on the importance of competences in the language(s) of schooling for equity and quality in education and for educational success.1 One of the key principles in the recommendation highlights the importance of language not just as a separate subject in school, but in all subjects across the curriculum. This is an aspect of language education that presents a particular challenge for policy makers and practitioners, since it requires new insights and a whole-school, cross-curricular perspective. This handbook has been written, therefore, to support the implementation of the principles and measures set out in Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)5. It aims to show why language is important in all subjects, and what the implications are for policy and practice. The handbook builds on and enriches the work of the Language Policy Unit’s Languages of Schooling pro- ject carried out under the aegis of the Steering Committee for Educational Policy and Practice of the Council of Europe. The committee has recognised that the acquisition of competences in language is an essential foundation both for success in school and for participation in modern democratic and diverse knowledge societies. The Languages of Schooling project has sought to underpin that principle and explore its practical implications with a series of seminars, conferences and publications. A rich variety of studies and conference papers arising from this work are available on “A platform of resources and references for plurilingual and intercultural education”.2 However, it was thought that a handbook that could stand as a publication in its own right would be a useful addition. Each chapter contains references linking to sections of the platform where particular issues are treated in greater depth. The handbook is primarily addressed to those responsible for curriculum development, the development of pedagogical material and teacher education, whether working at national or school level. It is also relevant for teachers who have a particular interest in deepening their understanding of the importance of language. The handbook has a practical orientation but it is not a “manual”, in that it is not intended as a “how to” book with a list of prescribed activities. It does, however, seek to clarify the basic insights and principles underlying the need for support in language education in all subjects. The implementation of policy and practice related to language education requires not just a mechanical application of rules, but an understanding and aware- ness of what is appropriate in particular situations as determined by the context. The intention, therefore, is to raise awareness and develop understanding of the issues that have implications for practice and, above all, to influence practice at national and school level. In order to enhance the practical value of the handbook, each chapter contains illustrative material, and appendices have been included to provide further material to aid reflection. The handbook is not intended as an academic text, but it does offer some theoretical perspec- tives and an underlying rationale. These are essential because the importance of language in all subjects can easily be misinterpreted and met with opposition if not fully understood. This is one of the challenges faced by policy makers. For example, the idea that language is important in all subjects can easily be reduced to a focus on the more superficial aspects of spelling and grammar. While these are important, they represent only one aspect of what language education entails. Subject teachers may argue that a focus on language will distract from their main responsibility for teaching their subject. This line of argument tends to arise if 1. Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)5 of the Committee of Ministers to the member states of the Council of Europe: www.coe.int/cm (“Adopted texts”). 2. www.coe.int/lang-platform (“Languages of schooling/Language as subject and Language(s) in other subjects”). Page 7 the implications of the relationship between language and cognition are not fully recognised; attention to language in the subject classroom will not only improve the pupils’ competence in subject-based as well as general language use, but will also help deepen their understanding of the subject matter and their wider learning in the subject. It is sometimes argued that a focus on language in all subjects is important for high- achieving pupils, but less significant for those who are pursuing less academic goals. This view underestimates both the role of language in all learning and the importance of competence in language for full participation in a democratic, knowledge society. By acquiring the language of a subject and reflecting on it consciously, all learners, independent of their background, will master the content and accompanying tasks more successfully. The misunderstanding that the importance of language in all subjects is more significant for high-achieving pupils may arise from the use of the term “academic language”. This term is widely used now in education to refer to the language characteristics of school subjects and the aspects of language proficiency that are valued and required by the school. These go beyond the spontaneous and generally informal language used in the everyday social life of most pupils. The specific competences that need to be mastered for successful knowledge building are often unfamiliar to many pupils before they enter school. These may not be made sufficiently explicit, giving rise to a “hidden curriculum” that makes the linguistic challenge posed by the school even more demanding. This is an issue for all learners, but particularly for those from socially disadvantaged backgrounds, or whose home language is different from the main language of schooling. Recognition of the importance of academic language is not elitist but, on the contrary, is rather an essential aspect of working towards equity in educational outcomes. Academic language provides access to more differentiated ways of thinking and expression. Deciding on what terminology to use in this handbook was a challenge and the subject of much discussion for the authors. The term “language of schooling” is widely used to describe the dominant language of instruction in school, which is normally the main national or regional language. The plural “language(s)” is sometimes used to show that in some contexts, more than one language is used for this purpose. However, the term “language of schooling” is also employed by some writers to refer to those uses of language that are particularly important for learning in subjects. In this handbook, we have adopted the term “academic language” for this purpose and kept “language of schooling” as the more general term for describing the language used in teaching a subject. We adopted the term “academic language”, despite its potential for ambiguity, because it is now so widely used in educational writing about language education. Decisions on other terms were more problematic. One of the central arguments of this handbook is that it is necessary to break down the general concept “language” into more refined categories in order to support classroom teaching. However, terms like “form”, “function”, “genres”, “domains” and “text types” are often the subject of dispute in academic literature and have different connotations among linguists and literary theorists, depending on their tradition or context. There was the further complication that this handbook will be published in two languages and is likely to be translated into more languages. The intention therefore has been to keep the use of categories and specialist terminology to a minimum and not to get involved in the various disputes about the use of the terms. In most cases, the meaning will be clear from the context. The handbook moreover does not aim to be comprehensive, for that would make it too long and run the risk of making it inaccessible. For example, the issue of sign language is not addressed, but it is acknowledged that this could well feature in the language policy of a school. Also, the impact of digital technology and other “new literacies” on pupils’ language use is not dealt with separately, although the importance of this area of research is recognised. The handbook has been written to support policy implementation and teacher development with compulsory schooling in mind, and the content has been selected accordingly. A number of issues are addressed transversally rather than in separate chapters. For example, the importance of quality education features in many of the chapters, as do the needs of vulnerable learners. We are aware that language educa- tion is not the only factor in ensuring quality in schools: teaching expertise, resources, socio-cultural context and a host of other influences are also relevant. However, language education is of the utmost importance, is closely related to some of the other factors, and is often not sufficiently addressed. A further reading section has been provided in Appendix 2 so that readers can pursue particular issues in more depth. As the handbook emphasises, teachers of all subjects have to be aware of the challenges posed by the need to support pupils in mastering the specific language competences that their school disciplines demand. For this reason much of the document is devoted to examining and illustrating possible ways in which teachers can provide language-sensitive subject teaching, offering pupils specific forms of support in acquiring the general “academic” and the subject-specific or “scientific” language characteristic of their school subjects. Teachers in schools are already subject to heavy demands. However, a focus on language does not have to be an additional responsibility, but is rather a re-focusing of subject teaching to make it more effective and Page 8 the language dimension in all subjects