A Grammar of the Dogon of Beni (Ben Tey) Dogon language family Mali Jeffrey Heath University of Michigan draft dated August 2010 (now converted to Unicode) use caution in citing I will later add an index, consecutive numbering, page breaks, etc. author’s email [email protected] color codes (excluding headings) black: new material for this grammar blue: transcription of Nanga forms green: transcription of other Malian languages and of reconstructions red: comments to myself (e.g. data to collect or reanalyse) pink: raw data not yet incorporated into text prose yellow highlight: needs checking or commentary Contents 1 Introduction........................................................................................1 1.1 Dogon languages....................................................................................1 1.2 Ben Tey language...................................................................................1 1.3 Environment...........................................................................................1 1.4 Previous and contemporary study of Ben Tey........................................2 1.4.1 Fieldwork.........................................................................................3 1.4.2 Acknowledgements..........................................................................3 2 Sketch..................................................................................................5 2.1 Prosody...................................................................................................5 2.2 Inflectable verbs.....................................................................................6 2.3 Participles...............................................................................................7 2.4 Noun phrase (NP)...................................................................................7 2.5 Postposition phrase (PP).........................................................................7 2.6 Main clauses and constituent order........................................................8 2.7 Relative clauses......................................................................................8 2.8 Verb-chaining.........................................................................................9 2.9 Interclausal syntax..................................................................................9 3 Phonology.........................................................................................11 3.1 General.................................................................................................11 3.2 Internal phonological structure of stems and words.............................11 3.2.1 Syllables.........................................................................................11 3.2.2 Metrical structure...........................................................................12 3.3 Consonants...........................................................................................13 3.3.1 Alveopalatals (c, j, ɲ).....................................................................13 3.3.2 Voiced velar stop g and g-Spirantization (g→ɣ)...........................14 3.3.3 Velar nasal (ŋ)................................................................................14 3.3.4 Voiceless labials (p, f)....................................................................14 3.3.5 Laryngeals (h, ʔ)............................................................................14 3.3.6 Sibilants (s, š, z, ž).........................................................................15 3.3.7 Nasalized sonorants (rⁿ, wⁿ, yⁿ)......................................................15 3.3.8 Consonant clusters.........................................................................16 3.3.8.1 Initial CC clusters....................................................................16 3.3.8.2 Medial geminated CC clusters................................................16 3.3.8.3 Medial non-geminate CC clusters...........................................17 3.3.8.4 Medial triple CCC clusters......................................................18 3.3.8.5 Final CC clusters.....................................................................18 3.4 Vowels..................................................................................................18 3.4.1 Short and (oral) long vowels..........................................................18 3.4.2 Nasalized vowels...........................................................................19 3.4.3 Initial vowels..................................................................................19 3.4.4 Stem-final vowels..........................................................................20 3.4.5 Vocalic harmony............................................................................20 3.5 Segmental phonological rules...............................................................20 3.5.1 Trans-syllabic consonantal processes............................................20 3.5.1.1 Nasalization-Spreading...........................................................20 3.5.2 Vocalism of suffixally derived verbs.............................................21 3.5.2.1 Suffixal Vowel-Spreading.......................................................21 3.5.2.2 Presuffixal V -Raising.............................................................22 2 3.5.3 Vocalic rules sensitive to syllabic or metrical structure.................23 3.5.3.1 Vowel-Lengthening before verbal derivational suffix............23 3.5.3.2 Final-Vowel Shortening (bisyllabic noun stems)....................23 3.5.3.3 Syncope and Apocope.............................................................24 3.5.4 Local consonant cluster and consonant sequence rules.................24 3.5.4.1 Derhoticization (/rⁿ/ to n)........................................................24 3.5.4.2 Rhotic Assimilation.................................................................25 3.5.4.3 /yⁿr/ → /n/ in Perfective Negative...........................................25 3.5.4.4 /yⁿr/ → /l/ in Hortative Negative.............................................25 3.5.4.5 /r...r/ becomes /l...r/ or /l…l/ in verbal morphology...............25 3.5.4.6 {w wⁿ} → /m/.........................................................................26 3.5.4.7 {r l} → /d/...............................................................................27 3.5.5 Vowel-vowel and vowel-semivowel sequences............................27 3.5.5.1 VV-Contraction.......................................................................27 3.5.6 Local vowel-consonant interactions..............................................28 3.5.6.1 Fluctuation between short high vowels {i u}..........................28 3.5.6.2 Monophthongization (/iy/ to i:, /uw/ to u:)..............................28 3.6 Cliticization..........................................................................................29 3.6.1 Phonology of ≡m̀ ∼ ≡∅ ‘it is’........................................................29 3.7 Tones....................................................................................................29 3.7.1 Lexical tone patterns......................................................................29 3.7.1.1 At least one H-tone in each stem.............................................29 3.7.1.2 Lexical tone patterns for verbs................................................30 3.7.1.3 Lexical tone patterns for unsegmentable noun stems..............31 3.7.1.4 Lexical tone patterns for adjectives and numerals..................34 3.7.1.5 Tone-Component location for bitonal noun stems..................35 3.7.1.6 Tone-Component location for tritonal noun stems..................38 3 3.7.1.7 Possibility of lexically all-low-toned nouns............................40 3.7.2 Grammatical tone patterns.............................................................41 3.7.2.1 Grammatical tones for verb stems...........................................41 3.7.2.2 Grammatical tones for noun stems..........................................42 3.7.2.3 Grammatical tones for adjectives and numerals......................42 3.7.3 Tonal morphophonology................................................................43 3.7.3.1 Autosegmental tone association (verbs)..................................43 3.7.3.2 Phonology of {HL} tone overlays...........................................43 3.7.3.3 Tone-Grafting (1Sg possessor)................................................44 3.7.3.4 Initial-High-Tone Suppression (possessed nouns)..................45 3.7.3.5 Atonal-Syllabic-Suffix Tone-Spreading..................................46 3.7.4 Low-level tone rules......................................................................46 3.7.4.1 Contour-Tone Mora-Addition.................................................46 3.7.4.2 Contour-Tone Stretching.........................................................47 3.7.4.3 Final-Cv R-to-H Reduction.....................................................48 3.7.4.4 <LHL> to <LH> before low tone............................................48 3.8 Intonation contours...............................................................................49 3.8.1 Phrase and clause--final nonterminal contours (⇑, ⇒, ⇒(cid:199), ⇓, ⇒↓) 49 3.8.2 Lexically built-in intonational prolongation (⇒)...........................49 3.8.3 Dying-quail word-final prosody (∴).............................................49 4 Nominal, pronominal, and adjectival morphology.......................55 4.1 Nouns....................................................................................................55 4.1.1 Simple noun stems.........................................................................55 4.1.2 Irregular human nouns (‘child’, ‘boy’, ‘girl’)................................56 4.1.3 Use of Singular and Plural suffixes with kin terms.......................57 4.1.4 ‘So-and-so’ (mǎ:n, àmâ:n).............................................................58 4.1.5 Frozen Ci- or Cu- reduplication in nouns......................................58 4.1.6 Frozen initial à- in nouns...............................................................59 4.2 Derived nominals..................................................................................59 4.2.1 Characteristic derivative (-gú-)......................................................59 4.2.2 Verbal Nouns.................................................................................60 4.2.3 Deverbal nominal with final /í:/.....................................................61 4.2.4 Uncompounded agentives..............................................................62 4.2.5 Irregular reduplicated nominal (tì-tírù)..........................................63 4.2.6 Expressive reduplication................................................................63 4.3 Pronouns...............................................................................................63 4.3.1 Basic personal pronouns................................................................63 4.3.2 Demonstrative function of Inanimate pronoun kú.........................64 4.4 Demonstratives.....................................................................................65 4.4.1 Demonstrative pronouns (‘this’, ‘that’).........................................65 4 4.4.2 Demonstrative adverbs...................................................................66 4.4.2.1 Locative adverbs.....................................................................66 4.4.2.2 Emphatic/Approximinative modifiers of adverbs...................67 4.4.3 Presentatives..................................................................................67 4.5 Adjectives.............................................................................................68 4.5.1 Underived adjectives......................................................................68 4.6 Participles.............................................................................................71 4.7 Numerals..............................................................................................71 4.7.1 Cardinal numerals..........................................................................71 4.7.1.1 ‘One’, ‘same (one)’, and ‘other’..............................................71 4.7.1.2 ‘2’ to ‘10’................................................................................72 4.7.1.3 Decimal units (‘10’, ‘20’, …) and combinations (‘11’, ‘59’, …) 73 4.7.1.4 Large numerals (‘100’, ‘1000’, …) and their composites.......74 4.7.1.5 Currency..................................................................................75 4.7.1.6 Distributive numerals..............................................................76 4.7.2 Ordinal adjectives..........................................................................76 4.7.2.1 ‘First’ and ‘last’.......................................................................76 4.7.2.2 Other ordinals (suffix -nɛ)́ .......................................................77 4.7.3 Fractions and portions....................................................................77 5 Nominal and adjectival compounds...............................................79 5.1 Nominal compounds.............................................................................79 5.1.1 Compounds of type (x̄ ̄ n)̄̄ ...............................................................79 5.1.2 Compounds of type (x̀ n)̄̄ ...............................................................79 5.1.3 Compounds with final Verbal Noun, type (x̀ n)̄̄ ............................80 5.1.4 Agentive compounds of type (x̀ v-̌ Ppl)..........................................80 5.1.5 Compounds with -yî: ‘child of’......................................................82 5.1.6 ‘Woman’ (yà-, yà:-), ‘man’ (àrⁿà-)................................................82 5.1.7 ‘Owner of’ (Sg bɔŋ̀ gɔ ́∼ bɔŋ̀ ɔ)́ ........................................................83 5.1.8 Loose and tight compounds with ná: (‘authentic’, ‘entire’)...........84 5.1.9 Instrumental relative compounds (‘oil for rubbing’).....................84 5.2 Adjectival compounds..........................................................................85 5.2.1 Bahuvrihi (“Blackbeard”) compounds (n̄ ̄ a)̂ ..................................85 5.2.1.1 With adjectival compound final..............................................85 5.2.1.2 With numeral compound final.................................................85 6 Noun Phrase structure.....................................................................87 6.1 Organization of NP constituents...........................................................87 6.1.1 Linear order....................................................................................87 6.1.2 Headless NPs (absolute function of demonstratives, etc.).............88 6.1.3 Detachability (in relatives).............................................................88 5 6.1.4 Internal bracketing and tone-dropping...........................................88 6.2 Possessives...........................................................................................88 6.2.1 Nonpronominal NP possessor........................................................89 6.2.2 Pronominal possessor.....................................................................91 6.2.3 Recursive and embedded possession.............................................94 6.3 Noun plus adjective..............................................................................95 6.3.1 Noun plus regular adjective...........................................................95 6.3.2 Adjective-like quantifier gàmbú ‘certain’......................................96 6.3.3 Expansions of adjective.................................................................97 6.3.3.1 Adjectival intensifiers.............................................................97 6.3.3.2 ‘Near X’, ‘far from X’...........................................................101 6.3.3.3 ‘Good to eat’..........................................................................101 6.4 Noun (or core NP) plus demonstrative...............................................101 6.4.1 Prenominal kú (pseudo-possessor)..............................................101 6.4.2 Postnominal demonstratives........................................................102 6.5 Noun plus cardinal numeral................................................................103 6.6 Plural (bè)...........................................................................................103 6.7 Definite (kù, bû:)................................................................................105 6.8 Universal and distributive quantifiers.................................................106 6.8.1 ‘Each X’ and ‘all X’ (wôy, dàⁿ-wôy)...........................................106 6.8.2 X wé⇒ X ‘from (one) X to (another) X’.....................................106 6.8.3 ‘(Not) any X’ (kâ:ⁿ)......................................................................107 7 Coordination...................................................................................109 7.1 NP coordination..................................................................................109 7.1.1 NP conjunction (X ya⇒, Y ya⇒)................................................109 7.1.1.1 Conjunction with final quantifier..........................................110 7.1.1.2 Interrogation of one coordinand............................................110 7.1.2 NP conjunction (X bè⇒, Y bè⇒)................................................110 7.1.3 /wê:y/ ‘as well as’........................................................................111 7.1.4 “Conjunction” of verbs or VP’s...................................................112 7.2 Disjunction.........................................................................................112 7.2.1 ‘Or’ (ma⇒) with NPs and pronouns............................................112 7.2.2 ‘Or’ (ma⇒) with adverbs.............................................................112 7.2.3 Clause-level disjunction...............................................................113 8 Postpositions and adverbials.........................................................115 8.1 Tonal locatives....................................................................................115 8.2 Accusative ≡nì (≡ǹ)............................................................................115 8.3 Dative and instrumental......................................................................116 8.3.1 Dative mâ:....................................................................................116 8.3.2 Instrumental ɲâyⁿ.........................................................................117 6 8.4 Locational postpositions.....................................................................118 8.4.1 Locative, allative, and ablative functions.....................................118 8.4.2 ‘In, on, at’ (wo)............................................................................118 8.4.3 ‘Inside, within’ (X pírè)...............................................................119 8.4.4 ‘on; on the head of’ (X kúwò)......................................................119 8.4.5 ‘On’ ([X mánì:] wò).....................................................................119 8.4.6 ‘close to, near’ ([X dósù] wò)......................................................120 8.4.7 ‘in front of’ (X jírè)......................................................................120 8.4.8 ‘Behind, after’ ([X túlù] wò).......................................................121 8.4.9 ‘Beside’ ([X bélè] wò).................................................................121 8.4.10 ‘Under’ ([X bólò] wò)...............................................................121 8.4.11 ‘Between’ ( [[[X Y] gálù] wò], [X Y] bɛŕ kɛl̀àw)......................122 8.5 Purposive and causal postpositions....................................................123 8.5.1 Purposive gǐn (and variants) ‘for’................................................123 8.5.2 Causal dɛŋ́ gɛỳ and gǐn ‘because of’.............................................123 8.5.3 Causal [[X nî:] wò]......................................................................124 8.6 Other adverbials (or equivalents).......................................................125 8.6.1 Similarity (gâyⁿ⇒ ‘like’).............................................................125 8.6.2 Extent (ɛs̀ iⁿ́⇒ ‘a lot’, ìllá = dɛm̂ ⇒ = dá:-wó ‘a little’)................125 8.6.3 Specificity....................................................................................126 8.6.3.1 ‘Approximately’ (gâyⁿ⇒).....................................................126 8.6.3.2 ‘Exactly’ (cɔḱ ).......................................................................126 8.6.3.3 ‘Specifically’ (té⇒)...............................................................126 8.6.4 Evaluation....................................................................................127 8.6.4.1 ‘Well’ and ‘badly’.................................................................127 8.6.4.2 ‘Appropriate, right’...............................................................127 8.6.5 Manner.........................................................................................127 8.6.6 Spatiotemporal adverbials............................................................127 8.6.6.1 Temporal adverbs..................................................................127 8.6.6.2 ‘First’ (kùyɔ:́)........................................................................128 8.6.6.3 Spatial adverbs......................................................................128 8.6.7 Expressive adverbials...................................................................129 8.6.7.1 ‘Straight’ (dém⇒).................................................................129 8.6.7.2 ‘Apart, separate’ (déyⁿ⇒).....................................................130 8.6.7.3 ‘Always’ (àsú⇒) , ‘never’ (àbádá)........................................130 8.6.7.4 ‘All together’.........................................................................130 8.6.7.5 ‘All, entirely’ (sóy, náŋánà:).................................................130 8.6.8 Reduplicated (iterated) adverbials...............................................131 8.6.8.1 Distributive adverbial iteration..............................................131 8.6.8.2 ‘Scattered, here and there’ (kálù-kálù, kôl-kôl, ɔŕ ⁿɔ-̀ ɔŕ ⁿɔ)̀ .....131 8.6.8.3 Other adverbs with iterated stem...........................................131 7 9 Verbal derivation...........................................................................133 9.1 Reversive verbs (-rv́-).........................................................................133 9.2 Deverbal causative verbs (-wú-, -lv́-, -rv-́ , -gí-, -dí-)..........................134 9.3 Passive (-wú-).....................................................................................136 9.4 Mediopassive -yv-́ ..............................................................................137 9.5 Passive (-yɛý ).....................................................................................138 9.6 Ambi-valent verbs without suffixal derivation...................................139 9.7 Deadjectival inchoative and factitive verbs........................................139 9.8 Denominal verbs.................................................................................142 9.9 Obscure verb-verb relationships.........................................................143 10 Verbal inflection.............................................................................93 10.1 Inflection of regular indicative verbs..................................................93 10.1.1 Suffixes or chained verb stems?..................................................93 10.1.2 Overview of categories................................................................93 10.1.3 Verb-stem shapes.........................................................................95 10.1.3.1 Generalizations about verb-stem shapes...............................95 10.1.3.2 Monosyllabic verbs...............................................................95 10.1.3.3 ‘Come’ (yɛ)́ ...........................................................................98 10.1.3.4 ‘Bring’ (jɛ᷈:)...........................................................................98 10.1.3.5 Lexical tone distinctions in Cv verbs....................................99 10.1.3.6 Cvyⁿ verbs...........................................................................101 10.1.3.7 Bisyllabic verbs...................................................................102 10.1.3.8 Triisyllabic verbs.................................................................103 10.2 Positive indicative AN categories.....................................................105 10.2.1 Perfective positive system (including perfect and stative).........105 10.2.1.1 Unsuffixed Perfective with all-low toned stem...................105 10.2.1.2 Unsuffixed Perfective with lexical tone and 3Sg -ẁ, 3Pl -mà 107 10.2.1.3 Variant third-person Perfective Cv̂:- with <HL> tone........108 10.2.1.4 Other variant third-person Perfectives................................109 10.2.1.5 Perfective-1a :-rɛ-̀ . Perfective-1b -tî-.................................110 10.2.1.6 Resultative -sô-....................................................................113 10.2.1.7 Experiential Perfect ‘have ever’ -tâ-...................................114 10.2.1.8 Recent Perfect -jɛ-̂ ...............................................................116 10.2.1.9 Reduplicated Perfective (Cì- plus {HL}, 3Sg -∅)..............117 10.2.1.10 Stative ({H}, 3Sg -ẃ)........................................................118 10.2.1.11 Reduplicated Stative (Cì- plus {HL}, 3Sg -ẁ)..................119 10.2.2 Imperfective positive system.....................................................122 10.2.2.1 Unsuffixed Imperfective (unreduplicated)..........................122 10.2.2.2 Reduplicated Imperfective (Cì-, 3Sg -m̀)............................126 10.2.2.3 Imperfective-1 (-:rà-)...........................................................127 8 10.2.3 Negation of indicative verbs......................................................129 10.2.3.1 Categories expressed by negative verbs..............................129 10.2.3.2 Negation of unreduplicated perfective-system verbs (-rí-).129 10.2.3.3 Negation of imperfective-system verbs (-m̀-dó-, -rà≡rá-)...131 10.2.3.4 Stative Negative (≡rá- without reduplication).....................132 10.3 Pronominal-subject suffixes for indicative verbs.............................133 10.3.1 Subject pronominal suffixes......................................................133 10.4 Clause-final temporal particles.........................................................136 10.4.1 Past ≡bɛ-̀ (≡bɛ-̂ ) and its conjugated forms.................................136 10.4.1.1 Past unsuffixed Imperfective (positive and negative).........137 10.4.1.2 Past Stative..........................................................................138 10.4.1.3 Past Perfect..........................................................................139 10.4.1.4 Past of Perfective-1a............................................................140 10.4.1.5 Past Imperfective-1.............................................................141 10.4.1.6 Past of ‘be’ and ‘have’........................................................142 10.4.2 ‘Still’, ‘up to now’, (not) yet’.....................................................143 10.5 Imperatives and Hortatives...............................................................143 10.5.1 Imperative and Prohibitive.........................................................143 10.5.2 Imperative stem..........................................................................144 10.5.3 Irregular imperative stems.........................................................147 10.5.4 Imperative Plural (positive) -ǹ (-nì)...........................................148 10.5.5 Prohibitive -rɛ-́ , Plural -rɛ-́ ǹ (-rɛ-́ nì)..........................................148 10.5.6 Hortatives (-ḿ, Pl -mâyⁿ) and their negation (-rɛ-̀ ḿ, -lɛ-̀ ḿ)......149 10.5.7 Third-person Hortative (-ý ∼ -ỳ) and its negation (-rɛ-́ ý)..........152 10.5.8 Third person Hortative form with 1Sg subject reference...........155 11 VP and predicate structure.........................................................157 11.1 Regular verbs and VP structure........................................................157 11.1.1 Verb types (valency)..................................................................157 11.1.2 Valency of causatives................................................................158 11.1.3 Verb Phrase................................................................................158 11.1.4 Fixed subject-verb combinations...............................................159 11.1.5 Idiomatic and cognate objects....................................................159 11.1.5.1 Formal relationships between cognate nominal and verb...160 11.1.5.2 Grammatical status of cognate nominal..............................163 11.1.6 ‘Do’ or ‘be done’ káyⁿ...............................................................163 11.2 ‘Be’, ‘become’, ‘have’, and other statives........................................164 11.2.1 Copula clitic ≡m̀ (≡∅) ‘it is …’.................................................164 11.2.1.1 Unconjugated positive forms..............................................164 11.2.1.2 Conjugated positive forms (1st/2nd persons)......................170 11.2.1.3 Conjugated positive forms (3Pl ≡∅-bɔ)́ ..............................171 11.2.1.4 Unconjugated negative ‘it is not …’ (≡m̀≡dá, ≡rá).............172 9 11.2.1.5 Conjugated negative ‘it is not …’ forms (1st and 2nd persons) 174 11.2.1.6 Conjugated negative ‘it is not …’ forms (3Pl)....................174 11.2.2 Existential and locative quasi-verbs and particles.....................175 11.2.2.1 Existential (yá)....................................................................175 11.2.2.2 Locational quasi-verbs (bù- ‘be’, ŋg̀ ó- ‘not be’).................176 11.2.2.3 Existential quasi-verbs with yá............................................178 11.2.3 ‘Be in, on’..................................................................................178 11.2.4 Stative stance verbs ‘be sitting’, ‘be lying down’......................179 11.2.5 ‘Doesn’t connect’ (dìmbà-ẁ≡rá-)..............................................179 11.2.6 Morphologically regular verbs...................................................180 11.2.6.1 ‘Remain’ (bé)......................................................................180 11.2.6.2 ‘Become, happen’ (táŋgí-)...................................................180 11.3 Quotative verb and quasi-verb..........................................................181 11.3.1 ‘Say’ (gǔyⁿ-)...............................................................................181 11.4 Adjectival predicates........................................................................181 11.4.1 Positive adjectival predicates with ‘be’ quasi-verb (bû-)...........183 11.4.2 Adjectival predicates with ‘be’ clitic (≡m, etc.).........................186 11.4.3 Negative adjectival and stative predicates (≡rá-).......................187 11.4.4 Past forms of adjectival predicates (≡bɛ:̂-, ≡bɛ-̀ ).......................189 11.5 Possessive predicates........................................................................190 11.5.1 ‘Have’ (yá só-, negative sò-ló-).................................................190 11.5.2 ‘Have possession of’ (sò-).........................................................192 11.5.3 ‘Belong to’ predicates (kɔ:̂ⁿ, yɔ-̂ m)............................................192 12 Comparatives...............................................................................195 12.1 Asymmetrical comparatives.............................................................195 12.1.1 ‘More, most’ (mɛǵ ɛ)́ ..................................................................195 12.1.2 ‘Surpass’ (láwá).........................................................................197 12.1.3 ‘Be better, more’ (ìrěw).............................................................197 12.2 Symmetrical comparatives...............................................................197 12.2.1 Expressions with gâyⁿ⇒ ‘like’..................................................197 12.2.2 ‘Equal; be as good as’ (bǎ-).......................................................198 12.2.3 ‘Equal(ly)’ (cí-cɛẃ , cɛẃ -cɛẃ )...................................................198 12.2.4 ‘Equal(ly)’ (bǎ⇒)......................................................................199 12.2.5 ‘Attain, equal’ (dɔ-́ )...................................................................199 12.3 ‘A fortiori’ (wê:y).............................................................................200 13 Focalization and interrogation...................................................201 13.1 Focalization......................................................................................201 13.1.1 Subject focalization....................................................................201 13.1.2 Object focalization.....................................................................203 10