A Description of Nyigina, A Language of the West Kimberley, Western Australia Bronwyn Stokes Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Australian National University March 1982 Unless otherwise acknowledged, this thesis is the original work of the author. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables xvi List of Illustrations xix Acknowledgements xx Abstract xxi List of Abbreviated Terms xxii Conventions and Layout xxvi List of Phonological Rules xxvii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO NYIGINA 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 NAMES AND PLACES 1 1. 3 GEOGRAPHY 2 1.4 SURROUNDING LANGUAGES 2 1.5 RECENT RESETTLEMENT 4 1.6 THE LAND 5 1. 7 CURRENT STATUS OF THE LANGUAGE 5 1.8 OVERVIEW OF THE NYIGINA LANGUAGE 7 1.9 THE ALTERNATIVE-PREFIXING LANGUAGES 7 1.10 PREVIOUS STUDY OF NYIGINA 11 1.11 SCOPE OF THIS DESCRIPTION 11 1.12 ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLINGUISTIC GLIMPSE 11 CHAPTER 2 : PHONOLOGY 2.1 NYIGINA PHONEMES 13 2.1.1 Phoneme Inventory 13 iv 2.1.2 The Stop Series 14 2.1.2.1 Allophones of the Stop series 15 2.1.2.2 Stop Contrasts 15 2.1.3 The Nasal Series 15 2.1.3.l Nasal Contrasts 16 2.1.4 The Lateral series 16 2.1.5 The Rhotics 16 2.1.6 The Semi-vowel /w/ 17 2.1.7 The Semi-vowel /y/ 18 2.1.8 The dy/y Alternation 19 2.1.9 The g/w Alternation 21 2.2 PHONOTACTICS 23 2.2.1 Word-Initial Position 23 2.2.2 Medial Position 24 2.2.2.1 Homorganic Nasal-Stop -CC- Clusters 24 2.2.2.2 Non-homorganic Nasal-Stop -CC- Clusters 24 2.2.2.3 Nasal Clusters 25 2.2.2.4 Other -cc- Clusters 25 2.2.2.4.1 Stop Clusters 25 Clusters with Initial Lateral 26 2.2.~.4.2 2.2.2.4.3 Clusters with Initial Rhotic 27 2.2.2.4.4 Clusters with Initial /y/ 28 2.2.2.5 -CCC- Clusters 28 2.2.2.6 Summary of Medial Clusters 29 2.2.3 Word-Final Position 30 2.2.3.1 Varied Final Vowel 31 2.2.4 Monosyllabic Items 32 v 2.3 STRESS WITHIN A WORD 33 2.3.l Stress in Unaffixed Words 33 2.3.1.1 Primary Stress in Unaffixed Words 33 2.3.1.2 Secondary Stress in Unaffixed Words 34 2.3.2 Stress in Words which Include Affixes 36 2.4 PHONOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SUFFIXES IN NYIGINA 37 CHAPTER 3: INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX 3.1 PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER 39 3.2 NOMINALS 39 3.3 INFLECTED VERBS 41 3.4 WORD ORDER 43 CHAPTER 4: NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY 4.1 INTRODUCTION 45 4.2 POSSESSIVE NOMINAL AFFIXES 45 4.2.1 Possessive Prefixing in Kimberley Languages 45 4.2.2 Incorporated Possessive Prefixing in Nyigina 46 4.2.3 Possessive Suffixing in Nyigina 49 4.2.3.1 Incorporated Possessive Suffixing 49 4.2.3.2 Productive Possessive Suffixing 50 4.2.4 Incorporated Possessive Affixing and Body Parts 51 4.3 GENERAL NOMINAL SUFFIXES 52 4.3.l Use of Nominal Suffixing 52 4.3.2 Multi-Functional Nominal Suffixes 57 4.3.3 Serial Suffixing 59 4.3.4 Distribution of NP Suffixing in Multiple Constituent NP 59 vi 4.3.5 Unsuffixed Noun Phrases 60 4.3.5.1 Types of Noun Phrases without Nominal Suffixing 61 4.4 THE ACTIVE SUFFIX (-ni) 65 4.4.1 The Morphology of the Suffixes -ni 67 4.5 THE DATIVE AND RELEVANT SUFFIXES 68 4.5.1 The DATive suffix (-dyi) 68 4.5.1.1 Morphology 68 4.5.1.2 Uses of the Dative Suffix 68 4.5.2 The Extended (DAT ) Dative suffix (-dyiya) 73 e 4.5.3 The ANIMate SOURCE Suffix (-dyina) 76 4.5.4 Aspects of Indirect Object/Goal 78 4.6 THE INSTRUMENTAL SUFFIX (-ryany) 80 4.6.l The Verbal Suffix (-ryany) 87 4.7 THE ALLATIVE SUFFIX (-ryana) 87 4.8 THE LOCATIVE AND RELEVANT SUFFIXING 89 4.8.l The Locative Suffix (-gan) 89 4.8.2 The Locative + SURFace (-~andi) suffixing 92 4.8.3 The ALLATive + Locative Suffixing (-ryan-an) 93 4.8.4 The Suffixes (-gan + -dyi) and CAUSal (-gandyi) 94 4.9 THE ABLATIVE SUFFIX (-gabu) 96 4.9.l Uses of the Ablative Suffix 96 4.10 THE INANIMATE SOURCE SUFFIX (-dyunu) 101 4.11 RELATIONSHIPS OF "ASSOCIATION" 104 4.11.1 The COMITative suffix (-barri) 104 4 .11. 2 The "Having" Suffix (-gudan y) 107 4.11.3 The "INCLuding" Suffix (-gananya) 108 vii 4.12 THE DIRECTIONAL SUFFIX (-marru) 109 4.13 THE END-POINT SUFFIX (-dyibur(u)) 110 4.14 "FINAL" NOMINAL SUFFIXES 111 4.14.1 The EMPHatic Suffix (-ga) 112 4.14.2 The RELATed Suffix (-dyamu) 114 4.14.2.1 Derivational Usage 'any/ever' 114 4.14.2.2 Nominal Marker of Subordinate Clause 116 4.14.2.3 Conjunctive Usage 118 4.14.3 The "LIKE" Suffix (-gaya) 119 4.14.3.l Derivational Nominal Suffixing 120 4.14.3.2 Pause Filling 121 4.14.4 Suffixing in Exclamation and Discourse 122 4.14.4.1 The vocative Suffix (-ay!) 122 4.14.4.2 The EXCLamatory Suffix (-aw!) 123 C11APTER 5: THE NOMINAL SUFFIXES· -n i 5.1 INTRODUCTION 125 5.2 THE ACTIVE SUFFIX -ni 125 5.2.1 Active Suffixing and Verbal Prefixing 126 5.2.2 "Ergative" Use of Active Suffixing 126 5.2.3 The Participant 127 1 5.2.4 Verbs in Typical "Ergative" Clauses 129 5.2.5 The Non-subject Participant 129 5.2.6 Active Suffixing and Atypical Examples 132 5.3 ACTIVE SUFFIXING OF NOUN PHRASES OTHER THAN THE NP f 135 pre 5.4 THE NARRATIVE SUFFIX -ni 145 5.5 THE REFERENTIAL SUFFIX -ni 148 5.6 ROLES OF -ni SUFFIXING 150 viii CHAPTER 6 : PRONOMINAL MORPHOLOGY 6.1 INTRODUCTION 151 6.2 FREE FORM PRONOUNS 151 6.2.1 Unmarked Free Form Pronouns 154 6.2.2 Morphological Patterning 154 6.3 MORPHOLOGY OF UNMARKED FREE FORM PRONOUNS 156 6.3.1 Third Person Singular Unmarked Free Form Pronoun 157 6. 3.2 Unit-·A.ugmented Free Form Pronouns 158 6.3.3 Unmarked Free Form Pronouns for Non-minimal Person Groupings 159 6.4 NOMINAL SUFFIXING AND UNMARKED FREE FORM PRONOUNS 160 6.5 DATIVE FREE FORM PRONOUNS 161 6.5.1 Forms of Dative Free Form Pronouns 161 6.5.2 Morphology of Dative Free Form Pronouns 162 6.5.3 Function of Dative Free Form Pronouns 163 6.5.4 Animate Source Suffixing to Free Form Pronouns 163 6.6 PRONOMINAL VERBAL SUFFIXING 164 6.6.l Direct Object Pronominal Verbal Suffixes (OPros) 165 6.6.2 Dative Pronominal Verbal Suffixes (DatPros) 166 6.6.3 Phonological Realization Rules 166 6.6.4 First Person Singular as Direct Object 170 6.6.5 Second Person Singular as Direct Object 170 6.6.6 status of -9ayu and -dyuwa as OPros 172 6.6.7 Occurrence of Dative Pronominal Verbal Suffixing 175 6.6.8 Functions of Dative Pronominal Verbal Suffixing 177 6.6.9 Multiple Non-subject Pronouns 178 ix CHAPTER 7 : VERBAL MORPHOLOGY 7.1 INTRODUCTION 181 7.1.1 Types of Surface Verbs 181 7.2 USE OF INFLECTING VERBS 182 7.2.1 Morphology of Inflecting Verbs 184 7.2.1.l Verbal Roots 185 7.2.1.2 Verbal Prefixing 185 7.2.1.3 Verbal Suffixing 186 7.3 VERBAL PRESTEMS AND VERBAL-NOMINALS 188 7.3.l Verbal-Nominals 190 7.3.1.1 Phonology of Verbal-Nominals 190 7.3.1.2 Reduplication of Verbal-Nominals 192 7.3.2 The Verbal Prestem 193 7.3.3 Verbal-Nominals with Nominal Suffixing 194 CHAPTER 8: VERBAL ROOTS 8.1 INTRODUCTION 197 8.2 PHONOLOGY OF VERBAL ROOTS 197 8.3 MONOSYLLABIC VERBAL ROOTS 199 8.3.l The Verbal Root -BA- 'see' 202 8.3.2 The Verbal Root -MI- 'give' 204 8.3.3 The Verbal Root -NI- 'sit' 204 8.3.4 The Verbal Root -RA - 'spear' 208 1 8.3.5 The Verbal Root -ijARA- 'be, feel, become' 210 8.3.6 The Verbal Root -A- 'carry' 215 8.3.7 The Verbal Root -I- 'do, say' 217 8.3.8 Remaining Monosyllabic Verbal Roots 224 x 8.4 POLYSYLLABIC VERBAL ROOTS 224 8.4.1 Verbal Roots with Initial 1- 225 8.4.2 Verbal Roots with Initial n- 225 8.4.3 Verbal Roots with Initial w- 227 8.4. 4 Verbal Roots with Other Initial Consonants 229 8.4. 5 Verbal Roots with Initial Vowel 229 8.5 REDUPLICATION INVOLVING VERBAL ROOTS 231 8.5.1 Complete Reduplication 231 8.5.2 Partial Reduplication 232 CHAPTER 9: VERBAL PREFIXING 9.1 INTRODUCTION 233 9.2 PREFIXING REQUIREMENTS 237 9.2.1 Order Classes of Prefixes 237 9.2.2 Phonological Realization Rules 241 9.3 ORDER CLASS 1: PRO 244 p 9.3.1 Variable (Reduced) Representation of PRO 244 p 9.3.2 Morphology of PRO 245 p 9.3.3 PRO Morphology and Future Tense 245 p 9.3.4 PRO Morphology and Realis/Irrealis Mode 247 p 9.3.5 Prefixing "Sets" 248 9.3.5.1 Prefixing Patterns in the Language Subgroup 248 9.3.5.2 Nyigina Prefixing and the Nature of the Activity 250 9.3.5.3 Distribution of the Two Prefixing Sets 254 9.3.5.4 Alternative-Prefixing Verbal Roots 255