THE RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2005 THE RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2005 Supplement No. 12: 407–412 © National University of Singapore A CONSERVATION ASSESSMENT OF THE SRI LANKAN AGAMIDAE (REPTILIA: SAURIA) Mohomed M. Bahir Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, 95 Cotta Road, Colombo 08, Sri Lanka Email: [email protected] Thilina D. Surasinghe Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT. – The conservation status of Sri Lanka’s agamid-lizard fauna is assessed, based on a 1998–2004 survey by the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, supported by historical data. A total of 17 species are recorded from the island, 14 of them endemic. This fauna comprises species of the genera Calotes, Otocryptis, Ceratophora, Cophotis and Lyriocephalus, the last three of which are endemic to Sri Lanka. The assessment concludes that among the endemic species, 3 are Critically Endangered, 5 Endangered, 3 Vulnerable and 3 Least Concern. The regional status in Sri Lanka of the non-endemic species is assessed as Least Concern. The populations of all Critically Endangered and Endangered species are restricted to montane habitats, emphasizing the need for increased conservation focus on these habitats in Sri Lanka. All three Critically Endangered species are more or less restricted to a single 10 km2 site, Morningside Forest, the conservation status of which is not clear. Habitat fragmentation and loss, rainwater acidification, pesticides and the effects of climate change are perceived as the principal threats to this fauna. These preliminary assessments will be fed into the Global Reptile Assessment, currently underway by IUCN-SSC. KEY WORDS. – Agamidae, Red List, conservation, Sri Lanka. INTRODUCTION IUCN (1999) assessed the conservation status of the Sri Lankan Agamidae, concluding that four species were “Highly The Indian Ocean continental island of Sri Lanka (65,230 km2) Threatened” and a further eight “Threatened”. It is not is, together with the Wetsern Ghats of India, considered to be possible however, to translate these categories to those of a global Biodiversity Hotspot (Myers et al., 2000). Despite Sri IUCN (2001), and so a fresh review is called for. Here we Lanka having had a terrestrial connection with India for much assess the conservation status of all the species of Sri Lankan of the past 500,000 years, ending only with the end of the last Agamidae applying the quantitative criteria of IUCN (2001), glacial maximum ~ 10,000 ybp, its herpetofauna shows a high basing our analysis on the results of a country-wide survey degree of endemism: 92 of the 182 reptile species recognized of the Sri Lankan Sauria involving ~ 120 sampling sites, at present are considered endemic (Bahir & Maduwage, 2005; undertaken by the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka (WHT) Bahir & Silva, 2005; Bossuyt et al., 2004; Das, 1996; from 1998–2004 (other saurian groups however, have not been Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998). Sri Lanka’s studied in the same depth as the Agamidae). The results of agamid lizards are especially interesting, given that three parallel WHT surveys of the island’s freshwater crabs (Bahir genera (Lyriocephalus, Cophotis and Ceratophora) and 14 et al., 2005) and amphibians (Stuart et al., 2004; IUCN, 2004) of the 17 species are endemic to the island. These lizards have already resulted in conservation assessments of these have also benefited from studies of their taxonomy, faunas. The results of this preliminary assessment will be fed distribution, ecology, molecular phylogeny and evolution into the formal process of the Global Reptile Assessment of (Erdelen, 1984, 1986; Manamendra-Arachchi & Liyanage, the IUCN, which is now getting underway. 1994; Macey et al., 1998; Schulte et al., 2002). However, only two species (Ceratophora tennentii and Calotes liocephalus) Eleven of Sri Lanka’s 17 agamid-lizard species are restricted have hitherto been assessed for the IUCN Red List (IUCN, to the ‘wet zone’ (rainfall more than 2,000 mm yr-1)—the 2004). We hope that this treatment of the agmid-lizard fauna formerly rain-forested south-western quadrant of the island, will be a starting point for a conservation assessment of all including the central and Knuckles hills—only three being the Sri Lankan reptiles. restricted to the ‘dry zone’ (rainfall less than 2,000 mm yr-1). 407 Bahir & Surasinghe.: Conservation of Sri Lankan agamid lizards This pattern is also largely true also for other well-studied other, widely distributed species however, Extent of groups such as the angiosperms, land snails and amphibians Occurrence was clearly more appropriate. Thus, Calotes (Dassanayake & Fosberg, 1980–2004; Naggs & Raheem, 2000; liocephalus, C. ceylonensis, C. liolepis, C. nigrilabris, C. Naggs et al., 2005; Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996; desilvai, Cophotis ceylanica, Ceratophora stoddarti, C. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005). We were tennentii, C. aspera, C. karu, C. erdeleni, Otocryptis prompted to make this assessment in part because of the nigristigma and Lyriocephalus scutatus were assessed using massive loss of habitat Sri Lanka’s wet zone has seen: only ~ Area of Occupancy, and Calotes calotes, C. versicolor, Sitana 5 percent of the original extent of rain forest now survives; ponticeriana and Otocryptis wiegmanni were assessed using even this is heavily fragmented; and habitat loss continues Extent of Occurrence. The assessments in respect of Calotes apace in an environment of steadily increasing demand for calotes, C. versicolor and Sitana ponticeriana are purely agricultural land from a rapidly growing human population in regional, not global, in scope: their global status should be what is already the most populous of the world’s 25 determined after assessment also elsewhere in their range. Biodiversity Hotspots (Cincotta et al., 2000). A species is assessed as threatened under the geographic range criteria of the IUCN Red List if its meets the quantitative MATERIALS AND METHODS thresholds for either Extent of Occurrence—20,000 km2 (VU), 5,000 km2 (EN) or 100 km2 (CR)— or Area of Occupancy— The 17 species of Sri Lankan agamid lizards were evaluated 2,000 km2 (VU), 500 km2 (EN) or 10 km2 (CR). Additionally, the against the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (2001: species’ habitat must be severely fragmented or it is known Version 3.1) to assess their risk of extinction. A species can to exist at only a few locations—10 (VU), 5 (EN), 1 (CR)—and fall into any one of the following categories: Extinct, Extinct there is continuing decline or extreme fluctuations in the any in the Wild, Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), of the following: extent of occurrence; area of occupancy; Vulnerable (VU), Near Threatened, Data Deficient or Least area, extent and/or quality of habitat; number of locations or Concern (LC). A species is considered to be threatened with subpopulations; or number of mature individuals. Continuing extinction at the global scale if it meets the criteria for Critically decline in Extent of Occurrence, Area of Occupancy and/or Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable (for the non-endemic quality of habitat was inferred if the habitat was not a protected species, these assessments are, however, for the Sri Lanka area, or it was a protected area subject to anthropogenic region only). Inferred or estimated trends in population size impacts such as pollution or encroachment. Least Concern and/or geographic range are used to assess species for status was awarded to taxa that were evaluated against the inclusion into one of the Red List categories. criteria and did not qualify for CR, EN, VU or NT status—in general such taxa are widespread (Extent of Occurrence greater This assessment is based primarily on the 1998–2004 national than 20,000 km2 or largely in protected areas) and abundant survey of saurian fauna conducted by the Wildlife Heritage with continuous distribution. Trust of Sri Lanka (WHT) and the voucher collection resulting therefrom. Distribution data were also extracted from the The terminology for habitat types follows the 2001 IUCN Red collections of The Natural History Museum, London (BMNH) List Categories & Criteria (version 3.1) (http://www.redlist.org/ and the National Museum of Sri Lanka (NMSL), which include info/categories_criteria2001.html), accessed 01 Jan.2005. all 17 species of Sri Lankan agamids. We also recognized as reliable the records of Deraniyagala (1953), Erdelen (1988) RESULTS and Taylor (1953). As no population data are available except qualitatively (e.g. ‘locally common’, ‘rare’), the assessments The results of the application of the IUCN Red List criteria to were made using the geographic range criteria of the IUCN Sri Lanka’s agamid lizards are presented in Table 1, which is a Red List. Presence/absence was determined for each of the checklist of the Sri Lankan Agamidae, showing available data 17 species at each sampling station, together with estimates responsive to the IUCN (2001) Red List criteria. The of geographic range. assessment shows that three species are Critically Endangered: they are all restricted to an Area of Occupancy The IUCN (2001) criteria allow for geographic range to be of less than 10 km2 at Morningside Forest, in the eastern part estimated using either Extent of Occurrence (i.e. the area of Sinharaja World Heritage Site. Five species are Endangered, contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary all of them confined to mountaintops in the central hills and which can be drawn to encompass all the sites of present Knuckles mountains. Three are Vulnerable, occurring occurrence) or Area of Occupancy (i.e. the area of habitat mainly in the lowland rainforests of the island’s south west. within its Extent of Occurrence that is in fact occupied by the The six Least Concern species, include the three non- taxon). We have chosen to use Area of Occupancy for the endemic species Calotes versicolor, Calotes calotes and species known from only one or a few discrete, isolated (e.g. Sitana ponticeriana. No species fall into the categories mountain-top) populations, because this—usually being a Near Threatened, Extinct, Extinct in the Wild or Data protected area—is quantifiable. In such cases, Extent of Deficient. All the threatened agamids of Sri Lanka are forest- Occurrence is likely to yield misleading results as the species dwelling species, those restricted to montane cloud forests are often known from small areas that are widely separated, apparently being at higher risk of extinction as a result of there being no suitable habitat in the intervening spaces. In severe fragmentation of their habitat. 408 THE RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2005 Table 1. Checklist of the agamid lizards of Sri Lanka, showing conservation status derived using the IUCN (2001) Red List criteria. CR, Critically Endangered; EN, Endangered; VU, Vulnerable; NT, Near Threatened; LC, Least Concern. Extent of Occurrence (‘extent’) is based on available habitat; ‘number of sites’ is the number of discrete (discontiguous) sites from which the species is known; or Area of Occupancy (‘area’) is the area of habitat within the Extent of Occurrence that is occupied by the taxon; ‘site’, largest single site associated with each Threatened species; ‘protection’ estimates the degree of protection offered to the largest single site associated with the species: ‘P’, protected area (PA); ‘N’, site not protected; ‘F’, PA administered by Forest Department; ‘W’, PA administered by Department of Wildlife Conservation; ‘T’, PA subject to degradation because of direct human impacts; B1 = Extent of Occurrence, B2 = Area of Occupancy; ‘frequency’, a qualitative estimate of the abundance of the species as v[ery] common, common, uncommon, rare and very rare. Note that the assessments for the non-endemic species Calotes versicolor, C. calotes and Sitana ponticeriana are only regional in scope, not global. species conserv- extent number protection site applicable abundance ation status (km2) of sites criteria Calotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758) LC ~43,800 > 30 P F W — — v. common Calotes versicolor (Daudin, 1802) LC ~37,700 > 35 P F W — — v. common Otocryptis wiegmanni Wagler, 1830 LC ~10,000 > 30 P F T — — common Sitana ponticertiana Cuvier, 1829 LC ~15,000 > 20 P W — — common species conserv- area number protection site applicable abundance ation status (km2) of sites criteria Calotes ceylonensis (Müller, 1887) LC ~10,900 15 P F W — — uncommon Calotes liocephalus Günther, 1872 EN ~400 7 P F T Knuckles B2ab(iii) rare Calotes desilvai Bahir & Maduwage, 2005 CR < 10 1 N T Morningside B2ab(iii) very rare Calotes liolepis Boulenger, 1885 VU ~1,100 20 P F W T Sinharaja B2ab(iii) uncommon Calotes nigrilabris Peters, 1860 EN ~300 5 P W F T Horton Plains B2ab(iii) common Cophotis ceylanica Peters, 1861 EN ~ 60 4 P F W T Horton Plains B2ab(iii) rare Ceratophora aspera Günther, 1864 VU ~700 > 10 P F T Sinharaja B2ab(iii) uncommon Ceratophora erdeleni Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998 CR < 10 2 P F T Morningside B2ab(iii) rare Ceratophora karu Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998 CR < 10 2 N F T Morningside B2ab(iii) rare Ceratophora stoddarti Gray, 1835 EN ~200 > 10 P F W T Horton Plains B2ab(ii, iii, iv) uncommon Ceratophora tennenti Günther & Gray, 1861 EN ~130 3 P F T Knuckles B2ab(iii) uncommon Lyriocephalus scutatus (Linnaeus, 1758) VU ~800 > 10 P F T Sinharaja B2ab(iii) uncommon Otocryptis nigristigma Bahir & Silva, 2005 LC ~20,000 > 10 P F W — — common DISCUSSION & Siriwardana, 1996; Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001, 2005; Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi , 2005; Compared with the 44 agamid species (Das, 1996) known from Ng & Tay, 2001), and contains also an unusual flora India, the land area of which is 48 times that of Sri Lanka’s, the (Gunatilleke et al., 2005). The conservation status of Morning- latter’s agamid diversity and endemism are remarkable. side however, is unclear: indeed, although the Forest Depart- Nevertheless, several agamid genera present in south India ment has custody of a section of this forest, part of it has (e.g. Draco, Psammophilus, Salea) do not occur in Sri Lanka. been replaced with tea, and most of it under-planted with It appears that much of the agamid-lizard diversity observed cardamom. A significant (but un-assessed) part of this small in Sri Lanka’s wet zone is the result of insular radiations, there extent of forest belongs to the Land Reform Commission of having been little biotic exchange during the Pleistocene the government, which in 2004 sought (fortunately abortively, (Bossuyt et al., 2004). In particular, the endemic Sri Lankan from the standpoint of biodiversity conservation) to lease species of Calotes and the lyriocephaline genera out this section for the purpose of clearing the forest and Lyriocephalus, Ceratophora and Cophotis appear to planting tea. Establishment of title to this forest and the ad- represent ancient insular radiations (Macey et al., 1998; jacent properties and securing these lands for conservation Schulte et al., 2002). is therefore a matter of the highest priority. The three Critically Endangered agamids, Ceratophora karu The Endangered species are all restricted to Tropical Moist (900–1070 m elevation), C. erdeleni (900–1070 m elevation) Montane Forests: Ceratophora stoddarti to Horton Plains, and Calotes desilvai (~ 1080 m elevation) are confined to Hakgala, Namunukula, Galaha, Pidurutalagala and Peak Morningside, a tropical moist montane forest area at the Wilderness (1,200–2,200 m elevation); C. tennentii to the eastern border of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, near Knuckles hills (700–1,300 m elevation); Cophotis ceylanica Rakwana. This small (~ 10 km2) forest has endemic to it also to Horton Plains and Hakgala (1,300–2,200 m elevation); several other species, including seven frogs, three crabs and Calotes liocephalus to Knuckles, Agra-Bopath and Peak a gecko (Bahir & Ng, 2005; Batuwita & Bahir, 2005; Fernando Wilderness (800–1,900 m elevation); and C. nigrilabris to 409 Bahir & Surasinghe.: Conservation of Sri Lankan agamid lizards Horton Plains, and grasslands around Nuwara Eliya and relatively undisturbed habitat remaining in this biodiversity Hakgala (1,000–2,400 m elevation). Among these, C. rich region of Sri Lanka. Even this remaining habitat is severely nigrilabris is the only species to occur also in tropical high fragmented, with three fragments (Peak Wilderness, 250 km2; altitude grasslands, at Horton Plains National Park. the Knuckles Hills, 175 km2; and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, 90 km2) accounting for ~ 65% of the remaining forest, the All the species assessed as Vulnerable are from the lowlands: remainder being represented by more than 100 discrete Ceratophora aspera (60–900 m elevation), Lyriocephalus fragments. Population density in the wet zone—740 km-2—is scutatus (below ~ 1,650 m elevation) and Calotes liolepis exceptionally high, and demand for agricultural land has led (below ~ 1,220 m elevation). These occur chiefly in tropical to increasing pressure of encroachment on the remaining moist lowland forests. The Endangered status of highland forest estate. species, against the Vulnerable status of lowland ones, appears to be the result of montane habitats having suffered With 11 of the 17 agamid species (65%) being threatened with greater loss to agriculture than lowland habitats. extinction, Sri Lankan agamids are clearly in need of conservation attention. For instance, the only available habitat Of the species assessed as being of Least Concern, Otocryptis of the three Critically Endangered species, the Morningside wiegmanni (up to ~ 1350 m elevation), occupies tropical moist forest at the eastern edge of the Sinharaja World Heritage lowland forests, tropical moist scrublands, and also Site, is under immediate threat. The protection status of this plantations, rural gardens and tropical heavily degraded tropical moist montane forest is not clear, as is the title to former forest. Otocryptis nigristigma (up to 450 m elevation) much of the land in this vicinity. This poses a significant risk and Calotes ceylonensis (up to 400 m elevation), on the other of encroachment, a process that has already begun. Much of hand, were recorded only from tropical dry forests and tropical this forest (including the area that is nominally protected) dry scrublands. Sitana ponticeriana dwells primarily on has been under-planted with cardamom (Pethiyagoda & shingle or pebble shores (sandy habitats in the dry zone) and Manamendra-Archchi, 1998). Morningside represents all or in open areas of tropical dry forests and tropical dry most of the remaining habitat for three species of Critically scrublands. Calotes calotes is found mainly in anthropogenic Endangered agamid species, in addition to several amphibians habitats, including plantations and rural gardens, but was (Stuart et al., 2004; Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, also recorded from tropical dry scrublands, tropical moist 2005; Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005 ) and scrublands and tropical heavily degraded former forests. Less freshwater crabs (Bahir et al., 2005) that needs to be absorbed commonly, the species was also recorded from tropical dry into the conservation planning process, especially in the forests and tropical moist forests. In general, it is widespread biodiversity-rich wet zone. throughout the island from sea level to ~ 1,500 m altitude. On the other hand, C. versicolor was almost never recorded from Ceratophora tennentii is restricted to the higher elevations undisturbed forest, being found only in anthropogenic of the Knuckles range, together with an important population habitats such as plantations and rural gardens, tropical of Calotes liocephalus. Much of the Knuckles has no heavily degraded former forest and tropical scrublands within protection status and is not subject to conservation the altitude range sea level to approximately 1,400 m elevation. management. Large extents of the forest understorey have been cleared for under-planting with cardamom, with only Calotes liolepis was earlier thought to be a species restricted the canopy vegetation being retained for shade. This to the wet zone (Manamendra-Archchi & Liyanage, 1994), disturbance could have severe long-term consequences given but the present survey served to uncover isolated that succession has been disrupted for several decades populations in several moist-forest ‘islands’ in the dry zone already. The populations of Ceratophora stoddarti, Calotes (e.g. Ritigala, Moneragala, and riparian forest in Yala). Erdelen nigrilabris and Cophotis ceylanica are all now in effect (1984: 515) noted the restriction of this species to undisturbed mountaintop isolates, as is to a degree also the central hills rain forest, but we have found it even in relatively disturbed population of Calotes liocephalus. Tropical moist montane tropical moist forest in several parts of the dry zone. (“cloud”) forest has been decimated in Sri Lanka as a result of Deraniyagala (1953) recorded C. liocephalus, C. ceylonensis tea cultivation, with only ~ 200 km2 still remaining (Werner, and C. nigrilabris from Peradeniya, records not confirmed 2001; pers. obs.). There is also evidence, especially in the by our own observations in that locality. tropical moist montane forests of the Knuckles and Horton Plains, of large-scale forest dieback (Werner, 2001), which Of the endemic agamids, only three species (Otocryptis could be the result of rain and cloud-water acidification nigristigma, Calotes ceylonensis and C. liolepis) occur in (Gunawardena et al., 1998). Because they occupy an extreme the dry zone. The former two species are restricted to the dry climatic niche, tropical montane biotas are also at risk from zone, whereas C. liolepis occurs in both. All three species climate change, especially warming. Indeed, long-term data however, are dependent on relatively moist (e.g. riparian), from Nuwara Eliya, a 2,000 m elevation montane site in central closed-canopy forest, for which reason their populations are Sri Lanka, show that average temperature has increased by now scattered and discontiguous. almost 1.5° C in the course of the past 120 years, while rainfall has decreased by more than 20 percent (Schaefer, 1998). Clearance of the wet zone’s former tropical moist forest cover for the plantation of cinchona, coffee, tea and rubber during The threats to Sri Lanka’s agamid lizards would appear to the past two centuries has led to less than five percent of stem largely from habitat fragmentation. Studies elsewhere in 410 THE RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2005 the tropics (e.g. Bierregaard et al., 2001) have shown that biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles fragmentation can have negative impacts on faunas even in Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 381–392. the decadal time frame. Thus, it is imperative that threatened Bahir, M. M. & P. K. L. Ng, 2005. Description of ten new species of populations restricted to small forest fragments be freshwater crabs (Parathelphusidae: Ceylonthelphusa, Mahatha, continuously monitored so as to assess population trends, Perbrinckia) from Sri Lanka. In: Yeo, D. C. J., P. K. L. Ng & R. and captive-breeding methodologies and capacity developed Pethiyagoda (eds.), Contributions to Biodiversity Exploration if necessary. This need is underlined by the finding that many and Research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, mountaintop isolates (e.g., of Ceratophora and the shrub- Supplement No. 12: 47–75. frog genus Philautus) have been genetically separated from Bahir, M. M. & A. Silva, 2005. Otocryptis nigristigma, a new species one another in the time-frame of hundreds of thousands or of agamid lizard from Sri Lanka. In: Yeo, D. C. J., P. K. L. Ng & millions of years (Schulte et al., 2002; Meegaskumbura & R. Pethiyagoda (eds.), Contributions to biodiversity exploration Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005) and show significant and research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, morphological divergence (Pethiyagoda & Manamendra- Supplement No. 12: 393–406. Arachchi, 1998), which may lead in the future to their being Bahir, M. M., P. K. L. Ng, K. Crandall, & R. Pethiyagoda, 2005. recognized as distinct taxonomic entities. Each of these Conservation assessment of the freshwater crabs (Crustacea: populations therefore warrants conservation in its own right. Brachyura: Parathelphusidae) of Sri Lanka. In: Yeo, D. C. J., P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda (eds.), Contributions to biodiversity The impacts of fragmentation could also be exacerbated by exploration and research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 121–126. the fact that many important montane forest fragments (e.g. Hakgala, Pedro, Agra-Bopath) are surrounded by vegetable Batuwita, S. & M. M. Bahir, 2005. Description of five new species cultivations. The lack of clearly demarcated boundaries and of Cyrtodactylus (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) from Sri Lanka. In: Yeo, buffer areas has resulted in significant encroachment into D. C. J., P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda (eds.), Contributions to these forests. Worse still, vegetable cultivation in Sri Lanka biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 169–198. involves the intensive and indiscriminate application of pesticides: no assessments have been made in Sri Lanka to Bierregaard, R.O., Gascon, C., Lovejoy, T. E. & R. Masquita (eds.), date on the susceptibility of non-target organisms to these 2001. Lessons from Amazonia: the ecology and conservation of chemicals; and studies made elsewhere (e.g. Hayes et al., a fragmented forest. Yale Univ. press, New Haven. 478 pp. 2002, for amphibians) have shown that even minute Bossuyt, F., M. Meegaskumbura, N. Beenaerts, D. J. Gower, R. concentrations of some herbicides could have devastating Pethiyagoda, K. Roelants, A. Mannaert, M. Wilkinson, M. M. impacts on non-target species. Bahir, K. Manamendra-Arachchi, P. K. L. Ng, C. J. Schneider, O. V. Oommen & M. C. Milinkovitch, 2004. Sri Lanka: a center of faunal endemism in Biodiversity Hotspot 21. Science, 306: 479– 481. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Cincotta, R.P., Wisnewski, J. & Engelman, R., 2000. Human This study was initiated in 1998 by Rohan Pethiyagoda (WHT), populations in the biodiversity hotspots. Nature, 404: 990–992. who provided guidance, literature, financial support and Das, I., 1996. Biogeography of the reptiles of South Asia. Krieger helped improve the manuscript. We thank the Director General Publ. Co., Malabar. 87 pp, 36 col. photos. of Wildlife Conservation and Conservator General of Forests Dassanayake, M. D. & F. R. Fosberg, 1980–2004. A revised in Sri Lanka, for permission for the Wildlife Heritage Trust of handbook to the flora of Ceylon vols. 1–9 edited by Dassanayake, Sri Lanka on survey of the saurian fauna in lands under their M. D., Fosberg, F. R. & W. D. Clayton; vols. 10–15 edited by care. National Science Foundation grant RG/2003/ZOO/08 Dassanayake & W. D. Clayton. 15 vols. Oxford & IBH Publishing partly supported recent field observations by MMB. We are Co., New Delhi. grateful to Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi (WHT) Dinarzarde Deraniyagala, P. E. P., 1953. A Colored Atlas of Some Vertebrates Raheem (BMNH), Anjana Silva (Peradeniya University) and from Ceylon. Tetrapod Reptilia,Vol. 2. Ceylon National Museums, Devaka Weerakoon (University of Colombo) for data; D. Colombo. i–vii+1–101 pp., i–xi+1–35 pls. Gabadage, S. Batuwita, M. Meegaskumbura (WHT and University of Boston), and Kalana Maduwage (University of Dutta, S. K. & K. Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996. The amphibian Peradeniya) for assistance with field work; and to Anslem de fauna of Sri Lanka. WHT Publications, Colombo. 230 pp. Silva (Amphibia and Reptile Research Organisation) for Erdelen, W., 1984. The genus Calotes (Sauria Agamidae) in Sri Lanka: discussion. We thank Penny Langhammer (Conservation distribution patterns. Journal of Biogeography, 11: 515–525. International) and Indraneil Das (Universiti Malaysia Sarawak) Erdelen, W., 1986. The genus Calotes (Sauria: Agamidae) in Sri Lanka: for critical comment that helped greatly to improve the Clutch sizes and reproductive seasonality of Calotes versicolor— manuscript. preliminary results. Spixiana, 9: 111–115. Erdelen, W., 1988. 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