Urban Development Series Green Cities Edited by Michael Lindfield and Florian Steinberg November 2012 © 2012 Asian Development Bank All rights reserved. Published in 2012. Printed in the Philippines ISBN 978-92-9092-896-6 (Print), 978-92-9092-897-3 (PDF) Publication Stock No. BKK125129 Cataloging-In-Publication Data Lindfield, Michael and Florian Steinberg. Green cities. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2012. 1. Green cities. 2. Environmental management. 3. Asia. I. Asian Development Bank. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area, or by using the term “country” in this document, ADB does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area. ADB encourages printing or copying information exclusively for personal and noncommercial use with proper acknowledgment of ADB. Users are restricted from reselling, redistributing, or creating derivative works for commercial purposes without the express, written consent of ADB. Notes: In this report, “$” refers to US dollars. “Hong Kong” and "Taipei" refer to the entire urbanized area within Hong Kong, China and Taipei,China respectively. Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Tel +63 2 632 4444 Fax +63 2 636 2444 www.adb.org For orders, please contact: Department of External Relations Fax +63 2 636 2648 [email protected] Printed on recycled paper Contents Preface v Foreword viii Abbreviations x Contributors xii Acknowledgment xiv Introduction by Michael Lindfield and Florian Steinberg 1 1 Spatial Development and Technologies for Green Cities by Florian Steinberg and Michael Lindfield 23 2 Urban Metabolism and the Zero-Waste City: Transforming Cities through Sustainable Design and Behavior Change by Steffen Lehmann 108 3 Energy Strategy for Green Cities by Thomas Hurst, Debra Lam, and Malcolm Ball 136 4 Transport for Green Cities by Lloyd Wright 175 5 Green Cities: A Water-Secure Future by Alan Baird and Theresa Audrey O. Esteban 218 6 Green City Solid Waste Management by Reynar R. Rollan 262 7 Financing Sustainable Cities by Michael Lindfield, Vergel Latay, and Vince Michael Docta 296 8 Smart Concepts for Greener Cities by Alexandra Vogl 373 Conclusion: Green Cities Will Become a Reality by Michael Lindfield and Florian Steinberg 406 iii Preface Asia’s Green City Challenge Asia’s cities have been the drivers of the economy and have lifted millions out of poverty. However, the environmental consequences of this rapid development are apparent, and the citizens of Asia’s urban areas are increasingly insistent that something should be done. And there is an investment deficit in Asian cities’ infrastructure spending, mostly in environmental infrastructure, of some $100 billion per annum. Asian cities can be more environmentally friendly. The resources are there to achieve this. Up to 80% of gross domestic product today comes from urban areas in Asia, and its megacities are nation-sized in population and economic product. New cities, such as the innovative “eco-towns” in Japan and “eco-cities” in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), have begun to put into action a sustainable urban development model. Existing cities need to change as they grow. In particular, to maximize livability and minimize energy use and environmental impact, Asian cities need to align the planning and provision of quality, high-capacity public transport with the provision of well-serviced high density, mixed-use development. The bus rapid transit system in Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China, for example, is integrated with the city’s metro system and other nonmotorized means of transport. It is also integrated with the planning and zoning of surrounding areas to foster a dense, pedestrian-friendly environment which allows easy access to services and employment. The challenge throughout the region is to provide the green infrastructure needed to maintain growth while cleaning up the environment. Anyone who has been in traffic jams in Bangkok, Beijing, Jakarta, Manila, or Mumbai will know that a new approach is needed. Asian cities and their hinterlands also have potentially severe global environmental consequences. This can be seen in the ecological footprints of Asian cities. Although controversial as an absolute measure, city ecological footprints provide a relative measure of cities’ resource use intensity and help us understand their impact. A sustainable footprint is about 1.8 hectares v vi Preface per person. Today, the average in rural PRC is 1.6 hectares. In Shanghai, it is 7 hectares. The footprint of a typical city in the United States is 9.7 hectares. The consequence for the environment as the PRC urbanizes and becomes wealthier is obvious. The constraints of inter-sector and interjurisdictional coordination, exacerbated by far-reaching decentralization which has occurred across the region and which has seen capacity-strapped cities and surrounding rural local governments saddled with “unfunded mandates”, mean that even “wealthy” cities find it difficult to respond to climate change imperatives and invest in green infrastructure even if they want to. To support its developing member countries in more sustainable urban development, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), under its new Urban Operational Plan, will analyze the urbanization process in the context of a country’s economic development and identify the main environmental, social, and economic development issues relating to the urban sector—as well as how ADB can add value in the sector—and the proposed areas of investment focus. ADB will endeavor to develop longer-term engagements in focus urban regions. This will provide the opportunity to develop an integrated plan based on assessments of the environmental, social, and economic priorities for these regions. The assessment process will identify the key environmental issues of a city and prioritize investments to address them in an integrated way across infrastructure sectors to achieve a Green City. ADB, together with public and private partners, will be involved in investments in water supply, waste water, solid waste, district heating/cooling, urban transport (including roads), and energy efficiency. To foster such investments, two things are needed. The first is to give cities the capacity and incentive to plan, finance, and implement needed infrastructure that provides the basis for innovation appropriate to the competitive advantages of the city and its rural hinterland. The second is to enable the private sector to participate effectively in this process, leveraging government resources. Asia’s cities are rapidly developing in sophistication and confidence. Despite obvious shortfalls in service provision, there is a developing sense that, with the right support, incentives, and freedoms, they may be able to solve their problems and even contribute in a major way to solving global problems such as greenhouse gas reduction and climate change mitigation. vi Preface vii The challenge is to find ways to channel resources to effective change agents in subsovereign governments. This would encourage innovative responses and effective partnerships with both private sector and community groups. At ADB, we accept this challenge under our new Urban Operational Plan. This book is intended to provide examples of how this challenge may be met. Bindu N. Lohani Vice-President Knowledge Management and Sustainable Development Asian Development Bank vii Foreword We are pleased to publish this book on Green Cities that, in addition to Inclusive Cities and Competitive Cities, will continue to form one of three major themes of the work of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in the urban sector over the coming years. Publication of this book is particularly timely in this year of the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Environment, which represents a major commitment of the international community to achieving sustainable cities. The global challenge we face today is that of preventing catastrophic climate change. This will require ensuring that global greenhouse gas emissions peak by the year 2020. Reaching this goal will be necessary to ensure that the increase in global temperature does not exceed 2°C by the end of the 21st century. In addition to ongoing efforts to reduce emissions, adaptation measures will be required to cope with the adverse consequences of climate change that have been locked in by emissions of previous decades. Developing Asia is now responsible for 35% of worldwide energy–related carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions, compared to only 17% in 2 1990. In the absence of more widespread use of energy from renewable sources as well as improved energy efficiency, this could reach 45% by 2030. Globally, cities account for about 70% of CO emissions, which 2 comprise a significant share of global greenhouse gas emissions, the bulk of these being generated in the building and construction, urban transport, and energy sectors. Ultimately, reducing CO emissions in urban areas will 2 require (i) lowering the rate at which buildings consume energy, both during construction and operation and maintenance; (ii) encouraging use of low- carbon forms of transport; and (iii) adopting low-carbon means of energy production. However, achieving such goals will require investment on a significant scale. In fact, several tens of billions of dollars will be required annually to assist developing countries transition to low-carbon and climate- resilient economies, with $40.0 billion being required annually for adaptation in Asia and the Pacific alone. For its part, ADB has sponsored numerous energy efficiency projects since 2002, with lending for energy efficiency reaching $2.1 billion per year as of 2011. One purpose of this book is to direct the green agenda toward compact, multifunctional, and efficient urban areas. It thus focuses on “greening” of a number of urban infrastructure services such as urban transport, and provision of water and sanitation services, waste management, and energy sources for urban areas. viii Foreword ix We join the editors and authors of this book in the conviction that the Asia and Pacific region is moving toward a green economy, and that the future of cities is an important part of this shift. While a challenging process that will require time, the foundation for Green Cities must be laid today. S. Chander Director General Regional and Sustainable Development Department Asian Development Bank