5 5 STEPS TO A AP Chemistry Other books in McGraw-Hill’s 5 STEPS TO A 5 series include: AP Biology AP Calculus AB/BC AP Computer Science AP English Language AP English Literature AP Environmental Science AP European History AP Physics B and C AP Psychology AP Spanish Language AP Statistics AP U.S. Government and Politics AP U.S. History AP World History 11 Practice Tests for the AP Exams Writing the AP English Essay 5 5 STEPS TO A AP Chemistry 2010–2011 John T. Moore Richard H. Langley New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Copyright © 2010, 2008, 2004 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 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McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, spe- cial, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possi- bility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or oth- erwise. ABOUT THE AUTHORS JOHNMOOREgrew up in the foothills of western North Carolina. He attended the University of North Carolina–Asheville, where he received his bachelor’s degree in chemistry. He earned his master’s degree in chemistry from Furman University in Greenville, South Carolina. After a stint in the United States Army he decided to try his hand at teaching. In 1971 he joined the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, where he still teaches chemistry. In 1985 he started back to school part-time, and in 1991 received his doctorate in education from Texas A&M University. For the last eight years he has been co-editor, along with one of his former students, of the Chemistry for Kids feature of The Journal of Chemical Education. In 2003 his first book, Chemistry for Dummies, was published. For the past several years, he has been a grader for the free-response portion of the AP Chemistry exam. RICHARD LANGLEY grew up in southwestern Ohio. He attended Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, where he earned bachelor’s degrees in chemistry and mineralogy and a master’s degree in chemistry. He next went to the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, where he received his doctorate in chemistry. He took a postdoctoral position at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, then became a visiting assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin–River Falls. He has taught at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, since 1982. For the past several years, he also has been a grader for the free-response portion of the AP Chemistry exam. The authors are also coauthors of Chemistry for the Utterly Confused and Biochemistry for Dummies. (cid:2) v This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Preface, xiii Acknowledgments, xv Introduction: The Five-Step Program, xvii STEP 1 Set Up Your Study Program, 1 1 What You Need to Know About the AP Chemistry Exam, 3 Background of the Advanced Placement Program, 3 Who Writes the AP Chemistry Exam?, 4 The AP Grades and Who Receives Them, 4 Reasons for Taking the AP Chemistry Exam, 4 Questions Frequently Asked About the AP Chemistry Exam, 5 2 How to Plan Your Time, 9 Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP Chemistry Exam, 9 Calendar for Each Plan, 11 STEP 2 Determine Your Test Readiness, 15 3 Take a Diagnostic Exam, 17 Getting Started: The Diagnostic Exam, 18 Answers and Explanations, 27 Scoring and Interpretation, 30 STEP 3 Develop Strategies for Success, 31 4 How to Approach Each Question Type, 33 Multiple-Choice Questions, 33 Free-Response Questions, 36 STEP 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High, 41 5 Basics, 43 Units and Measurements, 44 Dimensional Analysis—The Factor Label Method, 45 The States of Matter, 46 The Structure of the Atom, 46 Periodic Table, 50 Oxidation Numbers, 53 Nomenclature Overview, 53 Experimental, 59 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 59 Review Questions, 60 Answers and Explanations, 63 Free-response Questions, 64 Answers and Explanations, 64 Rapid Review, 65 (cid:2) vii viii (cid:3) Contents 6 Reactions and Periodicity, 67 AP Exam Format, 67 General Aspects of Chemical Reactions and Equations, 68 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions, 69 Precipitation Reactions, 70 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 71 Coordination Compounds, 75 Acid–Base Reactions, 76 Experimental, 80 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 80 Review Questions, 81 Answers and Explanations, 83 Free-response Questions, 84 Answers and Explanations, 85 Rapid Review, 86 7 Stoichiometry, 88 Moles and Molar Mass, 89 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas, 89 Reaction Stoichiometry, 91 Limiting Reactants, 92 Percent Yield, 93 Molarity and Solution Calculations, 94 Experimental, 95 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 95 Review Questions, 95 Answers and Explanations, 98 Free-Response Questions, 99 Answers and Explanations, 100 Rapid Review, 101 8 Gases, 102 Kinetic Molecular Theory, 103 Gas Law Relationships, 104 Experimental, 112 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 113 Review Questions, 114 Answers and Explanations, 117 Free-Response Questions, 119 Answers and Explanations, 119 Rapid Review, 121 9 Thermodynamics, 123 Calorimetry, 124 Laws of Thermodynamics, 126 Products Minus Reactants, 126 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium, 130 Experimental, 131 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 131 Review Questions, 132 Answers and Explanations, 134 Contents (cid:2) ix Free-Response Questions, 134 Answers and Explanations, 135 Rapid Review, 135 10 Spectroscopy, Light, and Electrons, 137 The Nature of Light, 137 Wave Properties of Matter, 139 Atomic Spectra, 139 Atomic Orbitals, 140 Experimental, 141 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 141 Review Questions, 142 Answers and Explanations, 143 Free-Response Questions, 144 Answers and Explanations, 144 Rapid Review, 145 11 Bonding, 147 Lewis Electron-Dot Structures, 148 Ionic and Covalent Bonding, 148 Molecular Geometry—VSEPR, 152 Valence Bond Theory, 154 Molecular Orbital Theory, 155 Resonance, 156 Bond Length, Strength, and Magnetic Properties, 158 Experimental, 158 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 158 Review Questions, 159 Answers and Explanations, 161 Free-Response Questions, 162 Answers and Explanations, 162 Rapid Review, 164 12 Solids, Liquids, and Intermolecular Forces, 166 Structures and Intermolecular Forces, 167 The Liquid State, 168 The Solid State, 169 Phase Diagrams, 170 Relationship of Intermolecular Forces to Phase Changes, 171 Experimental, 173 Common Mistakes to Avoid, 173 Review Questions, 173 Answers and Explanations, 176 Free-Response Questions, 176 Answers and Explanations, 177 Rapid Review, 177 13 Solutions and Colligative Properties, 179 Concentration Units, 180 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes, 183 Colligative Properties, 183