British Viscount James Bryce (1838–1922), law professor at Oxford and historian, summited Mount Ararat in 1876. His writing about the expedition is fascinating because he ties together so many different histories and cultures in a way that only a nineteenth century historian and writer could, allowing the reader to actually envision each part of the story in their mind even though they may be 10,000 miles away from the mountain. After his education at the University of Glasgow and at Trinity College in Oxford, he practiced law in London for a short time before becoming Professor of Civil Law at Oxford University (1870-1893). Along with Lord Acton, James Bryce founded the English Historical Review (1885). He wrote significant works in several fields; the first of these was his classic read, History of the Holy Roman Empire (1864). Bryce’s account of his ascent up Ararat was entitled Transcaucasia and Ararat and he wrote another article for the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society in London titled "The Ascent of Mount Ararat in 1876." Bryce’s treatise and study on the U.S. Constitution, The American Commonwealth (1888 and 3 volumes in size), remains a classic study and is still used by many diplomats, lawyers and historians today. He became a leader of Great Britain’s Liberal party, occupying a variety of posts, including the presidency of the Board of Trade and the chief secretaryship of Ireland. From 1880 to 1907 he was a Liberal member of the House of Commons, serving as undersecretary of state for foreign affairs (1886), chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1892), and president of the Board of Trade (1894-95). During those two years he also presided over what came to be called the Bryce Commission, which recommended the establishment of a ministry for education. Bryce was ambassador to the United States from 1907 to 1913; he was one of the most popular British ambassadors to ever be in Washington, since his knowledge of Americans, as revealed in his writings, was profound. His other major works are Studies in History and Jurisprudence (1901) and Modern Democracies (1921). On Jan. 1, 1914, Bryce was created a viscount. In the same year he became a member of the International Court of Justice, The Hague. Later, during World War I, he headed a committee that judged Germany guilty of atrocities in Belgium and France. Subsequently, he advocated the establishment of the League of Nations. Chapter 4 1876 British Viscount & Ambassador James Bryce In the late 1870s, Viscount James Bryce conducted extensive field and library research and became thoroughly convinced of the historical accuracy of the Bible set against the prevailing winds of atheism. Persuaded that the Ark might still have survived on Mount Ararat, he set out to see if anything was visible. Bryce was the first person in modern times who claimed to find wood higher around the 13,900-foot mark. He stated: Mounting steadily along the same ridge, I saw at a height of over 13,000 feet, lying on the loose rocks, a piece of wood about four feet long and five inches thick, evidently cut by some tool, and so far above the limit of trees that it could by no possibility be a natural fragment of one…I am, however, bound to admit that another explanation of the presence of this piece of timber…did occur to me. But as no man is bound to discredit his own relic,…I will not disturb my readers' minds, or yield to the rationalizing tendencies of the age by suggesting it. 136 THE EXPLORERS OF ARARAT It should be noted that Dr. Parrot (1829 on the summit), German Dr. Herman Abich (1845 on Western Slope) and Russian Colonel Khodzko (1850 on the summit) planted wooden crosses on the mountain earlier. Parrot's largest piece of wood was five feet long and two inches wide. Khodzko's cross of seven feet could have fallen or been moved down to lower elevations where Bryce found it. James Bryce (1838-1922), a well-respected professor of law at Oxford, was born in Belfast, Ireland. James Bryce, also a historian and statesman, was named Viscount and British Ambassador to the United States of America (1907- 1913). He became a leader of the Liberal party, held several government posts, and was a popular ambassador to the United States. His treatise and study on the U.S. Constitution, The American Commonwealth (1888), remains a classic and is still used. At Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1862; doctor of civil law, 1870), Bryce wrote a prize essay that was published in book form as The Holy Roman Empire (1864). In 1867 he was called to the bar, and from 1870 to 1893 he served as regius professor of civil law at Oxford, where, with Lord Acton, he founded the English Historical Review (1885). From 1880 to 1907 he was a Liberal member of the House of Commons, serving as undersecretary of state for foreign affairs (1886), chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1892), and president of the Board of Trade (1894-95). During those two years he also presided over what came to be called the Bryce Commission, which recommended the establishment of a ministry for education. At about this time he began to attack the expansionist British policy that led to the South African War (1899-1902). Thus, when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who had also opposed the war, became prime minister in December 1905, he appointed Bryce chief secretary for Ireland. Bryce, who had made the first of his several visits to the U.S. in 1870, was sent as ambassador to Washington, D.C., in February 1907. He already had made many friends in American political, educational, and literary circles and had become widely popular in the United States for The American Commonwealth, 3 vol. (1888), in which he expressed admiration for the American people and their government. As ambassador he dealt principally with U.S.- Canadian relations, which he greatly improved, in part by personal consultation with the Canadian governor general and ministers. In the process he also bettered relations between Great Britain and Canada, securing Canadian acceptance of an arbitration convention (April 4, 1908) originally signed by Great Britain and the United States. He retired as ambassador in April 1913. On Jan. 1, 1914, Bryce was created a viscount. In the same year he became a member of the International Court of Justice, The Hague. Later, during World War I, he headed a committee that judged Germany guilty of atrocities in Belgium and France. Subsequently, he advocated the establishment of the League of Nations. In 1876, James Bryce went on a steamboat from St. Petersburg 900 miles down the Volga River system to Saratof where he took a Russian train 1100 miles to the foot of the Caucasus Mountains, 126 miles via wagon toward Tiflis, and then on to Erivan, Aralykh, and up the southeast side of Ararat to summit it alone as all his companions fell by the wayside to exhaustion. While Dr. Friedrich Parrot was a Russian who spoke and taught also in German, James Bryce was an Englishman who began his journey from Russia. After his expedition, James Bryce authored the classic work, Transcaucasia and Ararat, and has a descriptive form a writing that only educated ninenteenth century authors can attain. If the reader does not enjoy history or would rather skip the wonderful reading on the voyage getting to Mount Ararat from St. Petersburg, then the reader may want to skip a few pages and go directly to Chapter V or VI below. Introduction The following pages contain a record of impressions received during a journey in the autumn of 1876 through Russia, the Caucasian countries, and the [Ottoman] Turkish Empire. They are first impressions only, for which no value can be claimed except that which belongs to impressions formed on the spot, and (as the author trusts) without a prejudice in favor of either of the states which are now contending in the regions here described. Yet even first impressions, if honestly formed, may sometimes atone for their crudity by their freshness. What most readers desire to know about a country is how it strikes a newcomer. A book that tries to give this, to present the general effect, so to speak, of the landscape, may have its function, even though it cannot satisfy the scientific student of geography or politics. The Author, however, did not travel with the intention of writing a book, nor would he, sensible as he is of his imperfect knowledge, have now thought of sending these notes to the press but for two reasons. One is the unexpected importance, which the outbreak of war in the countries he visited has given to them. The other is the urgency of his friends, whose curiosity regarding Mount Ararat has made him think it worth while to print a narrative of what he saw, and who assure him that some account of a mountain which every one has heard of, but about which comparatively little has been written, would be more interesting to English and American readers than he had at first supposed. British Viscount and Ambassador James Bryce 137 The publication of the book has been delayed by a domestic sorrow which has destroyed such pleasure as the composition of it might have given, the loss of one whose companion he had been in the mountain expeditions from childhood, and to whom he owes whatever taste he possesses for geographical observation and for the beauties of nature. LINCOLN’S INN, LONDON: September 12, 1877. Chapter I Everyone had said to us in St. Petersburg, “You have come at a bad time. Our people are greatly exasperated against England. They regard you as the abettors of the Turks, as the accomplices in the Bulgarian massacres.” (This was just after the great massacres of May [killing of 14,700 Bulgarians in 1876] had become known in Russia and before the English indignation meetings in September.) “They think that you prefer Mohammedans to Christians, and for your own selfish purposes—heaven knows what they are—are ready to support and justify all the oppressions and cruelties of the Turks.” I am bound to say that we never fell into talk with a Russian without being reproached with our sympathy for the Turks. It was always assumed that we, as Englishmen, of course stood over the massacres, and we were asked how we could be so unchristian. There was an oddly miscellaneous little library on board, consisting apparently of the leavings of many travelers, mainly Russian, but with several French novels and about as many solid German treatises, and two books in English. There is a very comprehensive Index Expergatorius in Russia, and people often told me they found their best Western books carried off by the customhouse, never to reappear. But, as every body knows, Alexander Herzen’s revolutionary ‘Kolokol’ found its way everywhere, and was read by all the officials up to the Emperor himself; and the same is said to be the case with the less brilliant socialist writers of today. Of all modes of traveling, a river steamboat is probably the pleasantest. It is exhilarating to rush through the air at a pace of eighteen miles an hour, the swift current adding several miles to what the strong engines can accomplish. One moves freely about, reads or writes when so inclined, sits down and chats with a fellow passenger, enjoys to perfection the bracing freshness of the air and the changing hues of sunset. All this is to be had on the Volga steamers, plus the delightful sense of novelty; and although the scenery is not striking, it may be called pleasing, quite good enough to see once. Between this boundless plain and this bold hill the Volga sweeps along in majestic curves and reaches, and the contrast between the two, the varying aspects which the promontories take as one approaches and recedes from them, give a pleasing variety to the landscape. Except at one point, you cannot call it beautiful, but it is all so green and so peaceful, the air is so exquisitely clear, there is such a sense of expanse in the wide plain and the sky vaulted over it, the stream down which on speeds is so wide, and calm, and strong, that there is a pleasure in the voyage it is easier to feel than describe. The ship touches, but seldom at the banks, for there are few towns, and when she does stop, it is rather for the sake of taking in wood than of passengers or cargo. A gang of women is usually waiting for us at the wharf, who carry on board bundles of chopped wood; while all the spare population of the villages comes down in its sheepskins and stands looking on, munching its cucumbers the while. Sheepskins, with the woolly side turned in, are the usual summer as well as winter wear of the peasants in these parts. As for cucumbers, the national passion for them is something wonderful. They are set down at every meal in hotels and steamers, while the poorer folk seem to live pretty 138 THE EXPLORERS OF ARARAT much upon them and bread. If I were asked to characterize the most conspicuous externals of Russia in three words, they should be “sheepskins, cucumbers, emeralds.”1 Buoys are anchored in many dangerous spots, landmarks are placed along the shore, and at night colored lights are shown. Although our steamer drew only four feet of water there were so many shoals and sandbanks about, that, instead of holding an even course down the middle of the stream, she was perpetually darting across it from the one shore to the other, so as to keep in the deepest part of the channel. Whenever one of the shallower parts was reached a bell was rung, which brought some of the crew forward, and one of them took his place armed with a long pole, the lower part of which was marked in colors, just like the “stick” in croquet, each foot’s length having a different color. This pole he nimbly plunged into the water just before the bow, till it touched the bottom, and then seeing by the marks on it what the depth was, he sang out, “vosem,” “sem,” “shest” (eight, seven, six), as the case might be, the vessel still advancing. As the smaller numbers began to be reached, a slight thrill ran through the group that watched, and when “piat” (five) followed, the engines were slowed or stopped in a moment, and we glided softly along over the shoal till “sem,” “vosem,” “deviat” (nine), following in succession, told that the risk of grounding was for the moment past. The Tatars of Kazan [different Kazan than the village Kazan next to Mount Ararat], who are no doubt Turks, retain not only their language and their religion but their social usages; they rarely or never intermarry with the Russians, but otherwise live on good enough terms with them, and do not seem to complain of the Christian government, which has been wise enough not to meddle with their faith. Since the fall of their Khanate three hundred years ago, they have rarely given any trouble, and now serve in the army like other subjects of the Czar. They are usually strong men, lithe and sinewy, of a make more spare than that of the Russians, and do most of the hard work both here, in their own country, and at Nijni and other trading spots along the river. In their faces is seen a good deal of that grave fixity which gives a dignity even to the humblest Oriental, and contrasts so markedly with the mobile features of the Slav. Archaeology, except perhaps as a branch of hagiology, or in the leaned circles of St. Petersburg and Moscow, has scarcely begun to exist in Russia; it is one of the latest births of time everywhere, and, as one may see from the fate of so many of our own pre-historic monuments, does not commend itself to the practical mind of the agriculturist. The only countries in which the traveler finds the common people knowing and revering the monuments and legends of their remote past are Norway and Iceland, where the sagas read aloud in the long nights of winter from manuscripts preserved in lonely farm-houses, have through many generations fired the imagination and ennobled the life of the peasant, who knew no other literature and history than that of his own ancestors. Just as the easternmost point of the bend the river turns south, breaking through the Jigoulef ridge which has bordered it for twenty miles, and here, at the town of Samara, one seems suddenly to pass, as if through a gate in the hills, from Europe into Asia. Up to this point all has been green, moist, fresh-looking, the air soft though brilliantly clear, the grass not less juicy than in England, the wayside flowers and trees very similar to our own, if not always of the same species. But once through the hills, and looking away southeast across the boundless steppe towards Orenburg and the Ural River, a different climate and scenery reveal themselves. The air is hot and dry, the parched earth gapes under the sun, the hills are bare, or clothed only with withered weeds; plants and shrubs of unfamiliar aspect appear, the whole landscape has a tawny torrid look, as if of an African desert. Henceforth, all the way to the Black Sea, one felt one’s self in the glowing East, and seemed at a glance to realize the character of the wilderness that stretches from here all the way, a plain with scarcely a mound to break its monotony, to the banks of the Oxus and the foot of the Thian Shan mountains. By this time nearly all the cabin passengers had done, but the lower deck was still crowded with Armenians and Persians bound for Astrakhan, whence they were to proceed, by another steamer of the same company, across the Caspian to Baku in Transcaucasia, or to Lenkoran on the frontiers of Persia. Travelers are fond of talking of the Oriental character of Russia; and though the smart saying about scratching Russians and finding Tatars is pretty well exploded (nobody can be essentially less like a Tatar than the Russian is), there are, no doubt, certain points, mostly mere externals, in which Russian towns, or Russian usages, recall those of the East. What is far more curious is to find 1 The profusion of fine gems, especially emeralds, rubies, and sapphires, you are shown in geological and antiquarian collections, sewn on to sacerdotal vestments, stuck on to the gold plates with which the sacred pictures are overlaid, is extraordinary. British Viscount and Ambassador James Bryce 139 on the Volga so many things and ways in Russia which remind one of America; points of resemblance between nations apparently as far removed from one another in manners, religion, history, and government, as they are in space. I amused myself in noting down some of these points of resemblance—those which are merely external and accidental, as well as those which really have a meaning—and give the list for what it is worth. Both are big countries. Their extent is immense, and everything in them is on a vast scale—rivers, forests, lakes, distances. One thinks little of a journey of a thousand miles. Land, being so abundant, is of little value; hence, partly, it is that in both a town covers so great an area, with its wide streets, its gardens, its unutilized open spaces. Hence we find in the middle of settled district ground that has never been touched by plough, or spade, or axe. Hence agriculture is apt to be wasteful, because when the soil grows less productive, he who tills it can move elsewhere. Both are countries whose interest lies in the future rather than in the past. Indeed Russia has less of a past than America, seeing that the latter owes the past of England, whereas Russian history is a very twilight sort of business till the great Polish war of the sixteenth century. Names of czars and patriarchs can be given, and a few famous battles fixed, but in the main it is an uncertain as well as dreary record of family quarrels between savage princes and incessant border warfare with the Tatar hordes. People venture boldly, live expensively, enjoy and indulge the moment, confident that things will somehow come right in the long run. No nations are so fond of speculating, writing and talking about themselves.2 Not unconnected with this is their tendency to sudden impressions and waves of feeling. Naturally a susceptible, perhaps an inconstant, certainly an impatient people, the Russians are apt to be intoxicated by the last new idea or doctrine; and their lively sympathy makes a feeling, belief, enthusiasm, that has once been started, spread like wild-fire through the whole educated, sometimes even down into the uneducated, class. This is less the case in America, but several of the political and social movements we can remember there, like Know-nothingism and (in a somewhat different way) the women’s whisky war, seem to illustrate the same kind of temper. Being new, and feeling themselves new, both are extremely sensitive to the opinion of older countries, and anxious sometimes to compel, more often to conciliate the admiration of their neighbors. In Russia, as in America, the first question put to the stranger is, “What do you think of our country?” and an appreciative answer is received with a thrill of pleasure which a German or an English breast would never experience on the like occasion. With all their patriotic self-confidence, they have a consciousness of having but just entered the circle of civilization, and are pleased to be reassured. They are, therefore, like the Americans, eager to learn what foreigners think of them, they do everything they can to set off the good points of the country, both physical and social; and they are apt to be unduly annoyed at hostile criticism, even when it proceeds from foolish or ignorant people. It is partly perhaps for the same reason, as well as from the dominant officialism, that they are more particular in some small points of social etiquette (the wearing of a black coat, for instance, or the use of appropriate titles in addressing a comparative stranger) than people are in countries where the rules of etiquette are so old that every educated man may be assumed to know them. It does not satisfy them that their material greatness should be fully admitted; they wish to be recognized as the equals of Western Europe in social and intellectual progress, and insist, as many American writers used to do, on their mission to diffuse new economical and social principles. Among minor points of similarity that strike one, may be named the mysterious element that underlies their politics—here, as in America, one hears a great deal of talk about secret societies, and cannot quite make out what these societies amount to. Even the structure of railway cars and steamboats, which seems to have been borrowed from America, and is certainly preferable to what one finds in the rest of Europe; and lastly, the general good-natured and easy-going friendly ways of the people, who, like the Americans, are far more willing to make friends with and do their best for a stranger, if only he will show some little politeness and some little interest in the country, than are either the French, or the Germans, or ourselves. Of course I am not insensible to the many striking contrasts between the two nations, the most striking of which is that in Russia there is, speaking broadly, no middle class, but only an upper and a lower, and that lower almost entirely uneducated and politically powerless. In America, there is nothing but middle-class, a middle-class which is well- taught, intelligent, political to the marrow of its bones. Any one can draw out for himself all the differences which flow from this one, and from the singular unlikeness of religions. But the curious thing is to find in the face of these differences so many points of resemblance. 2 This, however, has very much diminished in America of late years. 140 THE EXPLORERS OF ARARAT Saratof is one of the largest towns in Russia—that is to say, it has a population of 80,000 people. Like most towns in Russia, it has absolutely nothing in the way of a sight, not even a provincial museum or an old church; everything is modern, commonplace, and uninteresting, and life itself, one would think, must partake of the same character. All this part of Russia, down the river as far as Tzaritsyn, is full of German colonies, planted by Catherine II in the hope that they would teach cleanliness, neatness, and comfort and, above all, good methods of agriculture to their Russian neighbors—a hope which has not been realized, for they have remained for the most part quite distinct, living in their own villages, not intermarrying with the Muscovites, often remaining ignorant of their language. By far the most prosperous of these colonies belong to the Mennonite or Moravian persuasions, who thrive as the Quaker colonists throve in America. But now one hears that they are mostly leaving Russia altogether, fearing the enforcement of the new law of universal conscription. To them, who hold war a sin, service in the army is a more serious evil than emigration to Canada; and they appeal to the promise Catherine [Catherine the Great was sovereign of Russia from 1763 until her death in 1796] made that they should never be so required to violate their conscientious scruples. The government is perplexed: it does not wish to break faith, but, like all governments, it hates making exceptions, especially invidious exceptions in favor of people who do not hold the national faith. At Saratof we took the railway, which carried us with only two changes of carriage all the way to the foot of the Caucasus, a journey of 1100 miles, which occupied from Sunday afternoon to Wednesday afternoon. In no country, except America, is railway travelling so easy, I might almost say enjoyable, as in Russia, if only you are not in a hurry to get over the ground. The cars have a passage down the middle, and a little platform at each end where you may stand when the dust is not too distressing. The pace never exceeds, and seldom reaches, twenty miles an hour, so that one is not much shaken, and can read without injury to the eyes. The scenery of this vast region, which the Don and its tributaries drain, is intensely monotonous, so monotonous that its uniformity almost rises to grandeur. The greenness of Northern Russia is utterly gone: everything is dry, bare, dusty; a stream seldom appears, and when it does, is muddy and sluggish. The houses of the peasantry, which further north towards the forest country are always of wood, are here mostly of clay, strengthened possibly by a few bricks or wattles. Sometimes one sees on the skirts of a village a pretty large farm standing not without evidences of wealth, but there is mostly an untidy look about it—haystacks tumbling over, fences ill-kept, nothing trim or finished. The bucolic Russian has no gift for neatness, any more than his urban brother has for comfort. Between Griazi and Voronej, the next considerable place, one runs through an unbroken forest of beech for eight or ten miles, a forest, however, as is mostly the case in Russia, whose trees do not exceed twenty-five or thirty feet in height, and which has therefore nothing of forest gloom or forest grandeur about it; it is only land covered with trees. The woods finally disappear, and one enters the true steppe, that strange, solitary, dreary region, whose few features it is so easy to describe in words, but the general impression of which I do not know how to convey. Our train traversed it during an entire afternoon, night, and day, from Voronej to Rostof, at the mouth of the Don, so the impression had time to sink in. Whatever Russia may want, she does not want land, and has no occasion to annex Bulgaria or Armenia, or any other country to provide an outlet for her superfluous children. No rock appears, except here and there a tiny chalk cliff, and farther south beds of sandstone and shale in the railway cuttings; no tree, except willows and poplars along the streams, and occasionally some bushes round one of the few villages that nestle in the hollows; no detached houses anywhere. Hour after hour the train journeys on through a silent wilderness of brown scorched grass and withered weeds, climbing or descending in long sweeps the swelling downs, now catching sight of a herd of cattle in the distance, now caught by a dust storm which the strong wind drives careering over the expanse, but with the same unchanging horizon all round, the same sense of motion without progress, which those who have crossed the ocean know so well. Even now, with a bright sun overhead, the dreariness and loneliness were almost terrible; what must they be in the winter, when north-eastern gales howl over the waste of snow? Yet even in this dreariness there is a certain strange charm. Traversing this steppe for two whole days enables one to understand the kind of impression that Scythia made on the imagination of the Greeks: how all sorts of wonders and horrors, like those Herodotus relates, were credible about the peoples that roamed over these wilds; how terrible to their neighbors, how inaccessible and unconquerable themselves, they must have seemed to the natives of the sunny shores of the Ægean. One realizes also how emphatically this is the undefended side of Europe, the open space through which all the Asiatic hordes, Huns, Alans, Avars, Bulgarians, Mongols entered, their cavalry darting over the steppe in search of enemies or booty, their wagons following with their families and cattle, unchecked, except now and then by some great river, which, if it were too deep to ford, they crossed upon inflated skins. A dense haze filled the air as we crossed the Don, caused either by the dust storms which the wind raised, or by the smoke of steppe-fires, and cut off such view towards the sea as the flatness of the ground would have permitted. Soon we were again in the grassy wilderness, hundreds of miles wide, that lies between the Don and the Caucasus. Fires were blazing all over the steppe, whether accidental or lit for the sake of improving the pasture, I do not know; the effect, at any rate, was extremely fine when night came on, though the grass was too short to give either the volume of blaze or the swift progress which makes a prairie fire so splendid and terrible. I say “grass” from habit, but in reality it is rather weeds than a carpet of herbage that are to be found on the steppe. Though every ten or fifteen miles there is a station, a station does not in Russia imply that there is any likelihood of passengers; it is a place for the train to stop, for tumblers of tea to be consumed, for people to stretch themselves, for the station-master to exchange remarks with the engine-driver. There is but one train in the day; so its arrival is something of an event in the British Viscount and Ambassador James Bryce 141 neighborhood, and not to be treated lightly. Few of these stations had villages attached. All through this region, as elsewhere in Russia, one never sees a solitary house, or even a group of houses, and unless a village happens to be in sight, the country seems, according to the season, a green or a brown wilderness, unbroken by tree or hedge. Hereabouts there is not even the chance of seeing a wandering horde of Kalmucks, for that interesting race, who are nearly all Buddhists, and, as most ethnologists hold, of Mongol stock, dislike the neighborhood or Russian colonists, and keep more to the east along the Lower Volga, and by the shores of the Caspian, where the steppe is mostly salt, and therefore less fit for agriculture. It was a disappointment not to meet with this last remnant of the hosts of Zinghis Khan, dwelling in felt tents, and worshipping the Dalai Lama; but the world is large, and one cannot see everything in it. But now, some eighteen hours after we had left Rostof, several sharp craggy hills of limestone rose on the southern horizon, and behind them, dimly seen under brooding clouds, appeared a huge mass of high land, stretching east and west further than the eye could follow. It was the Caucasus, and all the weariness of the steppe [part of Chechnya] and the railway was forgotten in a moment, when, after the two thousand miles of plain we had traversed from the Gulf of Bothnia hither, we saw the majestic chain unroll itself before us. Chapter II In the days of the Crimean War [1853-1856], when the Caucasus [today mostly Georgia] first drew the attention of the Western world, Englishmen mostly thought of it as a chain of snowy mountains running from the Straights of Kertch to the Caspian Sea, inhabited by a race of patriotic heroes and beautiful women, called Circassians, who maintained perpetual strife against the encroaching Muscovite. Since then travelers have begun to penetrate it, and some of our own countrymen have even scaled its loftiest summits. It is really a chain; that is to say, a long and comparatively narrow strip of high land sloping steeply both ways from its' central axis; whereas many of our so-called mountain ranges are rather, like the Himalayas, the edges of plateaus, or, like the Andes, themselves a vast plateau with isolated eruptive masses scattered over its’ surface. It is, however, by no means, as the old maps represent it, a uniform chain, but rather consists of three sufficiently well marked divisions. First, we have the western section, lying along the Black Sea coast, where it is comparatively low, indeed, in the northwest little more than a line of insignificant hills, and mostly covered with wood. The first considerable heights begin about the fort of Gagri, fifty miles west-north- west of Sukhum Kaleh, where one peak reaches 9000 feet. Next comes the central section, from the neighborhood of Sukhum Kaleh, a well-known Black Sea port, eastward as far as Mount Kazbek and the Dariel Pass [3950 feet and also called the Gates of Alan or the Caucasian or Iberian Gates]. This is the loftiest and grandest part, having many summits that rise far above the line of perpetual snow, and at least seven exceeding 15,000 feet [several over 5000 meters and the highest Mount Elbrus summit at 18,481 feet], deep and gloriously wooded valleys; ample seas of ice surrounding the great peaks. Lastly, there is the eastern section, which is almost conterminous with (and which I shall therefore call by the name of) Daghestan, the “Mountain Land,” extending from the Dariel Pass to the Caspian Sea. Here the heights are not quite so great, though three or four peaks exceed 13,000 feet, and one, the extinct volcano of Basarjusi, reaches 14,722 feet. Approaching the Caspian, the declivities become gentler, the summits lower, the country altogether more open; so that here the people dwelling to the south found it necessary to protect themselves from the irruptions of the barbarous tribes of the northern steppe by the erection of a mighty rampart, the so-called Caucasian Wall, remains of which may still be seen near the port of Derbend, on the Caspian coast. The length of the whole mountain country, from Taman, on the Sea of Azov, the peninsula of Apsheron, on the Caspian, is about 800 miles; its greatest width, in Daghestan, about 120. Orographically, the most remarkable features of the Caucasus are the simplicity of its structure, the steepness of its declivities, and its great persistent altitude through the central and eastern sections. Unlike the Alps and the Rocky Mountains, it does not throw out, or rather split up into, any long secondary ranges parallel to one another. Several of these, and notably Elbruz and Kazbek, are volcanic, both composed of trachyte, and Elbruz—according to Mr. Freshfield, who with Messrs. Tucker and Moore, first ascended it—showing traces of a crater at the top. The other great peaks of the central section, such as Koschtantau, are believed to be mostly granite; while in Daghestan it is asserted that limestone rocks are found to form nearly all the loftiest summits. There is no point where the range sinks below 8000 feet, and very few where it is nearly as low; whereas in the Alps one has a good many passes across the main chain between 4000 and 5000 feet high. The consequence of this is that there are only two passes across the Caucasus which are practically used by travelers, those of the Dariel and the Mamisson (a little farther west than the Dariel), and only one, the Dariel, which is traversed by a road practicable for wheeled carriages. These physical features naturally impress a peculiar character upon the scenery of the Caucasus. They are not so beautiful as the Alps, but they are more majestic. One is less charmed, but more awed. And this impression of awe is heightened by the fact, that in the Caucasus there is so much less of human life and history than in the Alps. It is just because the chain is so steep and with an axis so uninterruptedly lofty that it has formed in all ages an impassable barrier between the nomad peoples who roamed over the northern steppes and the more civilized and settled races dwelling to the south, in the valleys of the Kur and Aras [Araxes], the Phasis and the Euphrates. From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to the civilized nations, both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge—indeed, the boundary of the world itself. Beyond it all is 142 THE EXPLORERS OF ARARAT fable and mystery, not only to Herodotus, but even to Strabo and Ptolemy. So, too, the waves of barbarian conquest that successively descended from the Ural and the Altai across the plains of the Caspian fretted and foamed in vain against this gigantic wall, and were forced to seek their ingress to the southern countries either to the east of the Caspian into Iran, or round the northern shores of the Black Sea towards the Danube valley. There has never been a time (save during the seventh and eighth centuries), down till the cession of Venetia in 1866, when regions on both sides of the Alps have not, either practically or nominally, formed parts of the same empire—Roman, or Romano- Germanic, or Austrian; whereas the countries immediately to the north and south of the Caucasus have never obeyed the same ruler (except, perhaps, in the lifetime of Zinghis Khan), until Russia established herself in Georgia at the beginning of this century. In them, as in the other mysterious boundary of the ancient world, the Pillars of Hercules, the Greeks laid the scene of mythological exploits and marvels. Colchis, to which the Argo sailed, lay under their shadow; Prometheus was chained to one of their towering rocks; near them dwelt the man-hating Amazons; beyond them gold- guarding griffins and one-eyed Arimaspians carried on perpetual war. So it remained for many centuries, down to the days of Marco Polo and Mandeville, in the east as well as in the west. Readers of the Arabian Nights will remember that there Mount Kaf is the limit of the world, and the usual threat of a magician to an obstinate sultan is, “I will transport thy city beyond Mount Kaf, and transform all the people in it into stones.” Thus it is a kind of ethnological museum, where specimens may be found of countless races and languages, some of which probably belong to the early ages of the world; races that seem to have little affinity with their present neighbors, and of whose history we know nothing except what comparative philology can reveal. Even before the Christian era it was famous for the variety of its peoples. Herodotus says: “Along the west side of the Caspian Sea stretches the Caucasus, which is of all mountains both the greatest in extent and the loftiest in height. It contains many and various nations, living mostly on the fruits of wild trees.” Strabo describes the Caucasus as inhabited by an immense number of different tribes, speaking different tongues, and many of them very savage. He reports the story that seventy such tribes resort, chiefly to buy salt, to the Greek trading station of Dioscurias, on the Euxine coast, of whom the bravest and most powerful are the ferocious Soanes, and tells how in summer the natives climb the mountains shod with shoes of ex-hide, their soles full of spikes to give them a hold upon the ice. Many of them are troglodytes [prehistoric people that lived in caves, dens, or holes], he adds, who, owing to the cold, dwell in holes. Some use poisoned arrows. Another writer says that some are cannibals—there is at any rate a consensus as to their ferocity. No more inappropriate ethnological name was ever propounded than that of Caucasian for a fancied division of the human family, the cream of mankind, from which the civilized peoples of Europe are supposed to have sprung. For the Caucasus is today as it was in Strabo’s time, full of races differing in religion, language, aspect, manners, character; races so numerous and still so little known that I shall not attempt to do more than mention some of the most important. Here in Daghestan many of the tribes occupy only one or two valleys, yet remain distinct in language and customs from their neighbors, and may probably remain so for centuries to come, an inexhaustible field for the ethnologist. Northwest of the Lesghians, towards Vladikavkaz, is the large Mohammedan tribe Tchetchens [Chechens], and beyond them the Ingushes, while southwest of Lesghistan, towards the Dariel Pass, dwell the Hessurs, or Chewsurs, a small people, who still array themselves in helmets and chain armor, carry shields and spears, and declare themselves descended from the Crusaders, though how Crusaders should have come there they do not explain. The truth seems to be that they wear, being nominally Christians, small crosses of red or black cloth sewed upon their clothes, and that some one, having been struck by the similarity of this to the Crusaders’ usage, set the tale a-going. Still farther west, between the watershed and the Kuban, stretching far to the northwest of Elbruz lay Circassia, inhabited by tribes who called themselves Adighé, and whom the Russians knew as Tcherkesses. They were nearly all Mohammedans, though of rather a loose kind, admirable horsemen and marksmen, living by war and pillage, and leaving to their women such tillage as the character of the country permitted. The Muslim peoples of the Caucasus are held by most travelers to be superior in energy and uprightness to the Christians. In fact, their Christianity consists in kissing the cross, in feasting and idling on certain holidays, fasting on others, and in worshipping deities, some of whom go by the names of Christian saints. Their supposed chivalry, like most chivalries, disappeared upon close examination. They lived upon robbery and the sale of their children, and of the ferocity, which accompanies their robberies, they have given us hideous examples in Bulgaria, and still more recently in the Armenian campaign. Each man, like the Cyclopes in Homer, rules over his wife and children, and cares nothing for his neighbor. Except that the risk of being eaten or pierced by poisoned arrows is gone, the mountains are much in the same state as they were in the time of Herodotus [fifth century B.C.] and Strabo [c. 63 B.C. to A.D. 24]. The Narsan spring at Kislovodsk [is] strongly impregnated with carbonic acid as well as iron. This last discharges 190,000 cubic feet of gas in twenty-four hours, and is often resorted to as a sort of tonic by people who have gone through the regular course of sulphurous or alkaline waters. Like the famous spring of Bórszek, in Transylvania, which is used in the same way as an “after cure,” it is quite cold (56° F.); and the physical pleasure of a plunge into its glittering waters, filled with the carbonic acid gas rising and breaking in great bubbles, is one of the most intense that can be conceived. It is like bathing in iced champagne. The Scotch colony [was] planted here in the time of Alexander I by missionaries sent to convert the Tcherkesses; the other a German colony, of somewhat later origin; all three laid out in straight lines, with trees running down their streets, and roads being made to connect them. They bore an almost ludicrous resemblance to those bird’s-eye views of suburban estates or rising watering-places which one sees on the British Viscount and Ambassador James Bryce 143 advertisement boards of our railway stations, and suggested how little variety there is in the world after all. What amuses one most is that, in so apparently peaceful a place, everybody goes about fully armed. Nearly all the male visitors are in uniform. After you leave Rostof, all the guards on the train, the porters at the stations, the waiters at the hotels, seem in a state of constant preparation to resist a Circassian foray. The very boy who brings up your boots in the morning comes with daggers rattling in his belt, and a string of cartridge holders sewed to the breast of his coat. So it is all through the Caucasian countries. In fact, arms are as necessary a part of a man’s dress as a hat; you are remarked, and in the wilder places, despised, if you do not wear them. Nobody has anything to do except play cards and smoke, the ladies joining freely in both amusements. English travelers are a puzzle altogether to the Muscovite mind. A remarkable feature of this steppe is the great number of tumuli, which lie scattered over its surface, and which are supposed to be the burial mounds of primitive races. They are commonly called Kurgans, and are found associated with rudely hewn wooden figures exceeding life size. What with the gloomy weather and the gathering shades of night, we could distinguish nothing more than patches of white under the clouds, but the lower declivities seemed to be thickly wooded almost down to the level of the steppe. The line comes to an end at Vladikavkaz, more than a thousand miles from Moscow. At five next morning the sky was clear and bright, and, to our amazement, a snow-peak was looking in at the window, seeming to hang over the town. We were in the steppe, outside the mountains altogether, and here was an icy pinnacle, soaring into the air 14,000 feet above us, no farther off than Pilatus [Swiss Alp peak] looks from Luzern. It was Kazbek, the mountain where Prometheus hung in chains. Hither the ocean nymphs came to console him; over this desert to the north Io wandered, driven by the gadfly of Hera. We therefore thought ourselves fortunate in falling in with two Russian ladies bound for Tiflis, whose acquaintance we made in the train, and who, after a preliminary skirmish about English sympathy with Turkish cruelties, had proposed we should make up a party to hire a vehicle to carry us over the 126 miles of road to the southern capital. Afterwards they picked up, rather to our disgust, a fifth partner, a Circassian gentleman, also making for Tiflis. We had of course conceived of a Tcherkess as a gigantic warrior, armed to the teeth with helmet and shield and the unerring rifle, hating the Russian intruder, and ready to die for Islam. This Circassian, however, turned out to be an advocate practicing at Stavropol, and graduate of the university of Moscow—a short, swarthy man, who was, I believe, a Mohammedan, but never turned to Mecca all the time we were with him, and in other ways showed small regard for the precepts of the Prophet. Our vehicle went by the name of an omnibus, but was what we should call a covered waggonette, with a leather roof and leather curtains made to draw round the sides, no useless protection against the dust and sun. In a point of fact, few travelers do stop. The rule in Russia is to go straight ahead, by night as well as by day, eating at odd times, and dozing in your carriage when you can. One soon gets accustomed to that way of life, fresh air and excitement keeping any one who is in good health right enough so long as the journey lasts. The drawback is that you may happen to be uncontrollably drowsy just when you are passing through the finest bit of scenery. The scenery is like that of parts of the Bavarian Alps, only on a far grander scale. After a time the glen widens a little, and its character changes, for we leave the limestone, and come between mountains of slate or schist. At the bottom of the gorge there is the furious torrent; on each side walls of granite rising (vertically, one would think, though I suppose they cannot be quite vertical) 4000 feet above it; behind are still loftier ranges of sharp, red pinnacles, broken, jagged, and terrible, their topmost summits flecked with snow, not a bush, or flower, or blade of green to relieve their bare sternness. This is the famous Dariel Pass, a scene whose grandeur is all the more striking because one comes so suddenly upon it after the exquisite beauty of the wooded limestone mountains farther down; a scene worthy of the historical associations which invest it, alone of all Caucasian glens, with an atmosphere of ancient romance. Virgil is renowned for nothing more than the singular felicity of the epithets with which he conveys a picture of a story in a single word; and the phrase, “duris cautibus horrens Caucasus,” seemed so exactly to describe this spot that I was tempted to fancy he had in his mind, when he used it, some account by a Greek traveler who had wandered thus far. The mighty masses that hem in this ravine do literally bristle with sharp crags in a way that one does not see even in the aiguille ranges of Mont Blanc. The scene is more absolutely savage, if not more majestic, than any of the famous passes of the Alps or Norway. It is not merely the prodigious height and steepness of the mountains; it is their utter bareness and the fantastic wildness of their riven summits, towering 7000 or 8000 feet above the glen, that fill one with such a sense of terror and desolation. A stronger military post can hardly be imagined. Approaching it either way, the precipices seem to bar all further progress, and the eye seeks in vain to follow the road, which in one place passes by a tunnel behind a projecting mass of rock. For about a quarter of a mile the bottom of the gorge is filled by the foaming stream, so that it is only along the road that an army could advance. Half-a-dozen cannon could command the road, and a single explosion destroy it. I cannot but think that the Scythians who ravaged Upper Asia in the seventh century B.C., and the other nomad tribes which have from time to time penetrated from the north, must have come along the Caspian shore by Derbend; but that a whole people should have brought through their wagons and their flocks seems well-nigh impossible. Be that as it may, this is beyond question the site of the famous Caucasian or Iberian Gates. The walls of the Dariel gorge itself are of grey, large-grained granite; but one sees many other igneous rocks in the cliffs—porphyries, syenites, and basalts; about four miles above the fort a beautiful range of basaltic columns, much like those of the Giant’s Causeway, runs along the steep mountain-side for some distance. Some ten miles above the Dariel, and about twenty-seven from Vladikavkaz, the road, descending to the river, suddenly rounds a corner of rock, and with a start the traveler finds himself full in face of the magnificent Kazbek, a 144 THE EXPLORERS OF ARARAT steep dome of snow breaking down on the east in a grand black precipice. The top is 16,533 feet above the sea, and 11,000 feet above the little alpine plain or circular hollow in the mountains. All we could obtains by way of concession was an hour and a half to climb to a little church which stands perched on a height 1400 feet above the glen, and commands a noble view of Kazbek with his attendant peaks. The building interested us as the first specimen we had seen of Georgian or Armenian architecture; it was, indeed still is, a much visited place of pilgrimage, and seemed to date from the twelfth or thirteenth century. After waiting ten minutes, we were rewarded, about 4:30 P.M., by seeing them disperse under the strong breeze, and his glorious snowy crest came out against the intense blue of a sky whose clearness seemed to surpass even that of the Alps. We returned to the post-house punctually at the appointed hour, but were met by reproachful faces. “There are now no horses to be had; in your absence other travelers came up, and being ready to start, called for all that were in the stable; we could not retain them. There will be none fit for work now before tomorrow morning.” Although secretly rejoiced to have a few more hours under the shadow of Kazbek, still, as politeness required, we dissembled our satisfaction, were forgiven, and prepared to spend the night at the uninviting post-house. We were welcomed by a young man with those soft handsome features which are so common among the Georgians, who turned out to be the Prince of Kazbek, a Georgian noble, who owns this part of the valley. He was entertaining two or three government employees sent from Tiflis to examine the glacier of Devdorak, which has several times formed a debâcle, behind which water accumulated in a lake which, breaking out at last, devastated the Terek valley. Among them was a young engineer from the Baltic provinces, speaking German, and an accomplished Armenian official, speaking both German and French, with whom we talked about the Caucasus to our heart’s content, over endless glasses of lemon tea, while the great mountain glittered before us in the clear cold starlight. The scenery is more savage than beautiful; but if we had not seen the Dariel defile lower down, we should have thought it magnificent. Nothing can be more beautiful than the view in descending. To the northeast you look up into a wilderness of stern red mountains, their hollows filled with snow or ice, their sides strewed with huge loose blocks. These woods are really splendid, composed almost entirely of deciduous trees, beech, oak, hazel, birch, and such like, and so close as to look perfectly impenetrable. From here the road is pretty enough, but less interesting, and I relieved its tedium by a long talk with the ladies, who, it appeared, had done us the honor to take us for poets, because we seemed to admire the scenery, and I had been gathering plants. As we are both lawyers, and considered by our friends to be rather plain matter-of-fact people, this unexpected compliment flattered us not a little, and on the strength of it I indited a sonnet to the younger lady’s cigarette, which was however, like its subject, of so evanescent a nature that it need not be reproduced here. Anxious to lie down and sleep, on the ground, in a post-house, anywhere, we heard with pleasure the conventional postmaster declare that no horses could be had before nine o’clock next morning; it was impossible, not a hoof in his stable, nor in any of the peasants’ either. However, our companions, and especially the Circassian, who, I fancy, had a law-suit in Tiflis, were unwearied and inexorable. The Circassian barrister bullied the postmaster with so much vigour that horses were found forthwith, and in two hours more we were rattling over the stones of the capital of Transcaucasia, and on our first night in Asia were received by the drowsy but friendly servants of the Hôtel de l’Europe. Chapter III What I have got to say of particular parts of the country, such as Tiflis, the capital, and Armenia, is reserved for later chapters. Transcaucasia is a convenient general name for the countries lying between the Black Sea, the Caspian, and the Caucasus, which make up the dominions of the Czar in Western Asia, the chief of which are Georgia, which lies along the upper course of the Kur, south of the Caucasus; Armenia, farther south, on the Araxes, between Georgia, Persia, and Turkey; Imeritia, west of Georgia; and Mingrelia, west of Imeritia, along the eastern coast of the Black Sea. However, it is a convenient name, and before speaking of each of these countries by itself, something may be said of the general physical features of Transcaucasia as a whole. It may be broadly described as consisting of two mountain regions and two plains. First, all along the north, there are the slopes of the Caucasus, which on this side (at least in its western half, for towards the east the main chain sinks quite abruptly in to the levels of Kakhitia) sends off several lateral ranges descending far from the axis, and at last subsiding into a fertile and well- peopled hilly country. Secondly, on the south, over against the Caucasus, there is another mountain land, less elevated, but wider in extent, consisting of the chain which under various local names (some geographers have called it the Anti-Caucasus) runs from Lazistan at the southeast angle of the Black Sea away to the east and southeast till it meets the ranges of Persia. Towards the south, this chain ramifies all over Armenia, and here attains its greatest height in the volcanic summits of Ala Göz, 13,460 feet above the sea, while northward its spurs from a hilly country stretching to Tiflis. These two mountain masses are connected by a ridge which, branching off from the Caucasus between Elbruz and Kazbek, the two best known of all the summits of that chain, divides the waters of the Kur from those of the Rion (Phasis), and is crossed by the great road and railway from Tiflis to the Black Sea near the town of Suram. It is open, bare, and dry; is, in fact, what the Russians call steppe country, or the Americans prairie, through nearly its whole extent, and though the soil is fertile, much of it, especially towards the Caspian, is but thinly peopled or