Sophocles' Antigone Introduction, translation, and notes by Marianne McDonald, Ph.D., MRIA 1 Copyright 2000, NICK HERN BOOKS Introduction Sophocles is the playwright of heroism, and Antigone the first female character in drama to be a hero in the full sense of the word. She is the first conscientious objector. The play is often performed as veiled criticism of the government prevailing at the time to show that something is rotten in that particular state. First, I offer a look at tragedy as it was originally performed, then Sophocles' other work, and its later influence, finally a close look at the Antigone, with suggestions to facilitate an eventual performance. The Performance of Tragedy The first performance of a tragedy is attributed to Thespis, ca. 534 B. C. in Athens. He had only one actor, who differentiated himself from the chorus, and Aristotle tells us that Aeschylus added a second actor and that Sophocles added a third, creating more possibilities for interchange and conflict. The three actors were called Protagonist, Deuteragonist, and Tritagonist (first, second, and third actor), and if further parts were needed, they were divided between them. Since all the actors were male, masks allowed them to play female roles. Masks particularly suited actors in the large theatres in which they performed. There were also supernumeraries, or nonspeaking parts, such as attendants and children. An actor was called a hypokritês, which meant "one who answers, an interpreter, expounder." Aristotle tells us that Sophocles introduced scene- painting to suggest a visual background. At the main Athenian dramatic festival, the Greater Dionysia, each dramatist put on three tragedies and one satyr play which comically handled tragic themes. A comedy by a different playwright followed. Aeschylus preferred the connected trilogy which allowed the development of a concept such as the workings of divine justice over several generations. Sophocles abandoned the practice of writing connected trilogies and instead preferred to highlight a major character within a single play. 2 Tragic performances were given annually throughout the fifth century in Athens. The theatre of Dionysus (the god of theatre) was outdoors, probably circular, with an altar in the center, and was built into the side of the acropolis. The chorus, who generally remained present throughout the performance, danced in the orchestra (circular space in the center of the theatre) as they sang. The music for tragedy was provided by the aulos, a reed instrument (like the oboe), and sometimes drums. Spoken portions of the drama, mainly in iambic trimeter, alternated with the choruses, which were always in lyric meters and usually arranged in stophês and antistrophês ("turns" and "turnings back", possibly referring to their danced accompaniment). The chorus' entry is called the parodos and their exit is called the exodos, and the choral sections in between are called stasima. Anapests often accompany entrances and exits and provide a type of marching rhythm. Antigone's final exit is in anapests. The spoken part may consist of a monologue called rhêsis, or a dialogue between two, three and sometimes four actors, or some exchange with a chorus. During heightened moments the dialogue takes the form of one-line interchanges called stichomythia. Sometimes an actor bursts out into an impassioned lyric aria. A kommos is a formal lament, usually chanted by an actor with the chorus (Antigone, as she goes to her death, or Creon at the end of the play). The theatre of Dionysus seated around 15,000-18,000 people, from a population of about 300,000 in Attica, comprised of male citizens, women, children, slaves and visitors. It is likely that only males attended the theatre. At first all the actors were non-professional, and the playwright acted too. It is said that Sophocles' weak voice prevented him from acting in his own plays. Gradually acting became more professional and prizes were awarded to actors from about the middle of the fifth century. A prize was given for the best tragic trilogy and for the best comedy. The best chorêgos (the person who paid for the costuming and training of the chorus) also was given a prize. The jury was selected from the citizens. 3 It was conventional not to depict violence before the audience. Dead bodies could be displayed on a device called the ekkyklêma, which was rolled out from the center doors of the building depicted on the skênê (backdrop, literally "tent"). A mêchanê ("machine") allowed aerial entrances and exits, usually of the gods. The use of side entrances/exits, parodoi, could indicate whether a character was local or from a foreign region, or going to or coming from a particular place (e.g., a battlefield vs. the city, as in Antigone). The Greater Dionysia was held in early spring, the 9th -13th days of the month Elaphebolion (March/April) when the seas were calm and the allies could attend. On the first day there was an elaborate show of tribute from the allies, war orphans paraded, and prominent citizens were given awards. It was very much like the May Day parade in Russia, when Soviet power was at its height. Going to the theatre was a social, civic, and religious event. One purpose of the festival was to impress allies and resident aliens. The audience were part of the performance and openly expressed their feelings and reactions which very likely influenced the judging. Three days of the Greater Dionysia were devoted to plays. These performances began at dawn and lasted all day. There are several plays which seem to begin at dawn, or even in the dark, for instance Aeschylus' Agamemnon. There are three major tragic playwrights whose works we have: Aeschylus (525- 456 B. C.), 7 of whose plays survive out of approximately 80; Sophocles (ca. 495-406 B. C.), with 7 plays out of approximately 123; and Euripides (ca. 480-406 B. C.), with 19 out of about 90. Most tragic plots came from mythology. Many of Aeschylus' themes and characters are taken from epic. Aeschylus himself claimed he wrote "slices from the banquet of Homer" (Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 8.347E). In varying mythological plots the playwrights could be quite original, sometimes returning to the well-known versions only at the end of the play. Very few plays dealt with historical themes. The only play that 4 survives of the historical plays is Aeschylus' Persians. Phrynichus earlier wrote The Capture of Miletus, and it was said that he was fined because he reminded the Athenians of their recent sufferings. It was produced in 493/2 and told of an Ionian colony seized and destroyed by the Persians in 494. By 472 B. C. the Athenians were more tolerant, and it is a tribute to them that they could applaud the Persians that presented their enemies sympathetically, so close to the actual war (seven years after the war had ended). The first play that we hear had a plot and characters entirely of the author's own making was the Antheus by Agathon, towards the end of the fifth century. Aeschylus lived during the glorious period of the Persian Wars (490-489 B. C. and 480-479 B. C.) when the invading Persians were defeated. He fought at Salamis, as evidenced by his epitaph, which commemorates him as a soldier and not as a playwright. He never had to face the less glorious Peloponnesian War (431-404 B. C.) which came about as a reaction by Sparta and other former allies against the expansion of the Athenian empire. Sophocles Sophocles was born at Colonus near Athens in about 495 B. C. and died in 406 BC. He was spared the sight of Athens' final defeat at the hands of Sparta, when it had to dismantle its walls in 404 B. C. Sophocles was a model citizen. He acted as Hellenotamias (a treasurer, 443/2) in the league Athens organized against Persia. He studied dance and was said to have danced around the trophy after the battle of Salamis (Athenaeus 1.20F). He also served as a general dealing with the Samian revolt in 441. Some say that the Antigone earned him this position. Others suggest that Sophocles' disgust at the exposure of the bodies of the enemies might have led him to write this play. After the Sicilian defeat in 413 B. C. he was one of the Probouloi (special Athenian officials) elected to deal with the disaster. 5 Sophocles followed in Aeschylus' footsteps by serving his city when he could, in either a political or cultural function. He lived to about 90, and it is said that he was sued by a son, who claimed he was no longer capable of managing his own affairs. He read lines from the recently written Oedipus at Colonus, and was acquitted. Whether this is true or not, the Oedipus at Colonus was written in advanced age, and is a clear masterpiece. The story of a law suit is probably spurious, since there is other testimony that Sophocles got on well with both of his sons. Phrynichus (the comic poet) wrote that "Sophocles lived to a ripe old age, and he was happy and clever. After writing many excellent tragedies, he died well without suffering any serious misfortune." The lexicon known as the Suda says that Sophocles was named the bee on account of his sweetness. Perhaps a fragment from one of Sophocles' plays may reveal his own outlook: "It is fairest to live justly, and most profitable to live healthily, but the sweetest is to have a bit of love each day" (356 Radt). The ancients regarded Sophocles as a man at ease with himself and contented with life. He is credited with a ready wit. He boasted, as he stole a kiss from a boy serving him, that he was practicing strategy (strategein), since Pericles had said that he knew how to be a poet, but not a general (strategos), and Sophocles concludes, "Don't you think my strategy worked?" (Athenaeus 13.604C-D) In Plato's Republic (329C), he is reported to have claimed that he was happy that he was finally free from that wild taskmaster, love. After his death he was said to have become a sacred hero like Oedipus, and was worshipped as Dexion, roughly translatable as "he who receives," because of his association with the cult of Asclepius, which he had helped to introduce into Athens after the plague (430-26 B. C). He also was a priest of the healing spirit Halon. In Aeschylus, god can confront god and major questions are raised about conflicting rights. Sophocles shows man confronting god and a world which can never be knowable. Euripides shows man confronting himself, and sometimes losing the battle. Sophocles presents us with the hero, and Euripides shows us the antihero. According to 6 Aristotle, Sophocles claimed he depicted men as they ought to be, but Euripides as they were (Poetics 1460b33-4). Euripides, who chose to be isolated from an active citizen's life, and left Athens in old age, saw things more bleakly. It is difficult to find or recognize any heroes in Euripides. Instead there are now heroines, or noble children, or slaves. The main recourse man has in the chaotic Euripidean world is philia, "friendship," or "mutual dependency." Heroism is dead, in the way we have known it, killed in a war where the enemy is seen to be oneself. Sophocles shows his characters struggling to right the wrongs they perceive in the world about them, and there is some objective justification for their struggles. What Sophoclean heroes do, they also do in isolation. Antigone goes to her death alone, as does Ajax. By contrast, Euripides' Heracles needs the help of Theseus, to continue his life, and Euripides' Iphigenia in the Iphigenia at Aulis needs her father's words to aid her in her final decision to die for the sake of Greece. Euripides questions objective truth, seeing it as a personal construct, aided by interpersonal relationships. Iphigenia's death is required for perverse reasons by leaders acting on their own behalf rather than the communal good. But Sophocles' Antigone and Ajax die for ideals, which, although somewhat misguided in their one-sidedness, can still be respected. Sophocles celebrates the hero; Euripides laments the victim. Sophocles is said never to have been placed third when he competed. He first competed in 468 and defeated Aeschylus and is said to have been awarded the prize around 24 times (18 at the City Dionysia) in contrast to Aeschylus' 13 and Euripides' 4. Of the plays that survive, only the Philoctetes and the Oedipus at Colonus can be dated with certainty, and the Antigone approximately, with reference to the Samian war. The following chronology is tentatively suggested: Antigone 443 or 441 BC Ajax ca. 442 BC Trachiniae ca. 432 BC 7 Oedipus Tyrannus ca. 427 BC Electra ca. 413 BC Philoctetes 409 BC Oedipus at Colonus 401 BC (Posthumous) There are many fragments, including a large part of the satyr play, the Ichneutae. Antigone, Oedipus Tyrannus, and Oedipus at Colonus are often called "The Theban Cycle," but they were never performed together as a trilogy on a single day. Instead they span Sophocles' life. Aristotle saw Sophocles as the greatest of the ancient playwrights and regarded his Oedipus Tyrannus as a model of dramatic construction. Clue after clue is discovered, bringing us closer and closer to the place where we began: We shall not cease from exploration. And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time Through the unknown, remembered gate When the last of earth left to discover Is that which was the beginning. T. S. Eliot, "Little Gidding" This is a play about knowledge. Over the temple at Delphi was written "Know Thyself" and "Nothing in Excess." If Creon fundamentally violated the latter, Oedipus violated the former. Yet these violations were what defined these heroes. Oedipus is supposedly the man of knowledge, the one who solved the riddle of the Sphinx. He knew what went on four legs in the morning, two at noon and three in the evening: man. Sophocles is a master of imagery, and the relation between sight, insight, blindness and ignorance in this play is important: in Greek the verb "to know" is the perfect tense of the verb "to see." When Oedipus had sight he lacked insight; it was only 8 when he blinded himself physically that he could finally truly see and understand. In Oedipus at Colonus, he will not only see for himself, but for all others, as he becomes a guide to his last resting place, and finally a guide for the land as a chthonic seer, and protective hero-spirit. Oedipus was the beast that he, the hunter, hunted. He was the child that slew the father and supplanted him in his mother's bed, the Freudian fantasy as the original nightmare. He was the disease that he, the doctor, had to cure. He was a marvel, endowed with skills, the riddle-solver who could not solve his own riddle. Oedipus chose relentlessly to follow every clue and find the cause of the plague in the city, besides finding out who he was, and ultimately that one equaled the other. He tried to avoid what had been foretold, but he could not. His only real choice was to avoid the truth. This he chose not to do and his relentless pursuit of the truth destroyed his public persona but defined him as a man. The relentless progression from revelation to revelation, moderated by false clues, orchestrated moments of release followed by scenes of gripping terror, are examples of Sophocles' mastery of plot. Sophocles also uses language programmatically to enhance his effects. He varies his rhythms and uses words percussively, a fine example being Oedipus’ angry charge to Teiresias in one of the greatest mixed metaphors of all time: tuflo;" tav t’ w\ta tovn te nou'n tav t’ o[mmat’ ei\ (371), "You are blind in your ears, your mind, and your eyes." Reciting these angry T's is like spitting fire. Oedipus tried to avoid his fate and escape the oracle he had heard when he was young. But the more he ran the more he was trapped in the net, or the infernal machine, the trap that Cocteau said was set in motion the moment he was born. Nevertheless, it is a mistake to see Oedipus as a simple victim of fate. The ancient view was a complex one, seeing man as responsible for his fate besides being subject to controlling forces; Oedipus says himself, "Apollo wrought this cruel fate of mine, but it was my hand that struck" 9 (1329-32). This may seem contradictory, but it is not so far removed from the modern view of man being genetically and environmentally determined, yet able to act in that narrow framework. Man's having a choice distinguishes much of Western philosophy from the Eastern, and the Western drive to freedom from Eastern fatalism and resignation to one's karma. The spark of freedom is what Prometheus gave man, and it blazed in Oedipus. As Yeats said, "Whatever flames upon the night, man's own resinous heart has fed." Oedipus' freedom was to find out who he was and rage against the obstacles along the way. What has often been called his hamartia, his "fatal flaw," is the fire that made his glory. As Pericles said in the funeral oration, the Athenians knew that happiness was based on freedom, and freedom on a brave heart. Bernard Knox has suggested that Oedipus parallels Pericles or Athens itself, and his tragedy was the same as the city's in being based on a passionate drive. Oedipus lost happiness, but exercised his freedom, which allowed him not to "go gentle into that good night." He raged even until he entered Colonus. His rage may have been his ruin (see Oedipus Tyrannus 673-75), but it fanned his vital energy which maintained him "against the dying of the light." Oedipus at Colonus shows us the aged Oedipus more accepting on one level, but an angry demigod on another. At the opening he says three things have taught him to endure (stevrgein): suffering, long time, and nobility (7-8). If this endurance is meant to imply patience, we find this refuted by Oedipus' rage against his son Polyneices, which clearly shows us that there is still some of the old Oedipus left. He curses his sons as he goes off to fulfill a blessing for Athens as the city's patron hero in return for refuge. Besides hate, Oedipus shows love, which he says is the main gift he has given his daughters. He says they have been loved by him more than by any man, and this love compensates in part for their sufferings (1615-19). Athens will give Oedipus hospitality and a welcome in philia, the love/duty one renders an honored guest. Oedipus upholds the ancient creed of helping one's friends and harming one's enemies. At the end of his life, 10