Nadiah Binti Ahmad; S1476971 Understanding ASEAN’s Formal Narratives on Women’s Advancement Master of Arts in International Studies Thesis 5184VIS04Y 10 ECTS 1 Content Chapter One: Introduction p.3 Chapter Two: ASEAN official documents and their formal narratives p.10 Chapter Three: Reasons behind ASEAN’s Women’s Advancement p.20 Chapter Four: Conclusion p.29 Bibliography p.32 Table Index Table 1.1. Table of ASEAN Documents Used in Thesis p.6 Table 2.1. Table of Comparison between MDG Goal 3 Criteria p.17 and ASEAN Declarations Table 2.2. Table of Comparison between MDG Goal 3 criteria p.18 and ASEAN Plans of Action 2 Chapter One Introduction This thesis attempts to assess formal narratives of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), by uncovering the reasons for the inclusion of women’s advancement as part of its human development agenda. The thesis hopes to conceptualize women within the Southeast-Asian region through the lenses of the association’s decision-makers, exposing dominant perspectives that inform and influence the position of women, structural forces that shape these narratives, and examine possible contradictions and deficits in ASEAN rationalities. The thesis would first look at ASEAN as an association; after which, it would discuss the hypothesis, method of research as well as the research’s limitations. It would then specifically assess declarations and plans of action that include women as part of their development agenda. After which, there would be a detailed assessment of the reasons behind their inclusion, and concluding remarks on the findings. Understanding ASEAN ASEAN was established in reaction to containing threats of the Cold War; consisting of five newly de-colonized and independent nations, Malaysia, Thailand, Brunei, Singapore and Indonesia, the member-states found it imperative to protect themselves from the possible political and military manipulation from external powers due to the power vacuum that was created right after the departure of colonial powers in the same period (ASEAN, 1992). Each member-state also sought the potential for collective bargaining power in security and economic issues the association could provide amongst an emerging global society that was becoming more inter-twined. Since its inception in 1967, ASEAN had been noticeably state-centric in its intra-regional principles, as reflected in its fundamental principles. Part of the Bangkok Declaration, which formally established the association, included fundamental principles which looked to ensure political, economic and cultural growth with the insistence on the privileging of sovereignty between member-states, and upholding non-interference and consensus-building practices in its decision-making mechanisms (ASEAN, 1967). All of its formal declarations and agreements had had to take into account these rigid principles and ultimately, the association’s subsequent collective actions were seen as self-serving and placed the nation-state as the prime unit of concern (Nesadurai, 2009). 3 Newly formed states like those in ASEAN believed they were in a precarious position of development, with the possible threat of external forces impeding their demands on how to shape the state; in this instance ASEAN was helpful to provide a collective shield between states within the region from intervening in each others’ domestic affairs, but also to ensure the superpowers of the time did not take advantage of their fragility (Nesadurai, 2009). ASEAN’s role was a reactive, and passive one, allowing for its individual member-states to leverage on its existence to further their own economic and political agenda; the association was created as a tangible platform for legitimizing and protecting its member-states’ existence and their processes of state-making in the international society and allowed for a relatively uninterrupted period of economic growth (Dorsch & Mols, 2014). At the same time ASEAN was a reflection of the new global order that had been culminating since the end of the Second World War, namely the increase of inter-regional and international cooperation of states to ensure mutual dependence and security. Since the Cold War, ASEAN had taken small steps towards further integration whilst still maintaining its fundamental principles. The conceptualization of the ASEAN Charter (2007) saw the association’s pivot towards more formal cooperation in economic and security policies, especially in its effort to increase intra-regional trade and access to regional markets; moreover, it also highlighted the association’s awareness of international principles of governance, as reflected in the inclusion of upholding human rights and development in its principles, using the United Nation’s Charter as a reference for its understanding of international and humanitarian law. Unlike the international environment in which the association was conceived, the post Cold War era came with more space for unpredictable threats - this included the region’s catastrophic experience during the Asian financial crisis in 1997, when all of its member-states were affected, in varying degrees, by the failure to manage the market economy effectively (Emmers & Ravenhill, 2011). The experience put to test the successful socio-economic practices of each member-state during the Cold war, of which inevitably became more precarious and less reliable in the “era of deregulation” (Higgot, 1998, 339). The experience led ASEAN to “revitalize its efforts at economic integration”, understanding the need to secure the region of new threats like the precariousness of the free market economy (138). 4 Thus, the existence of the Charter was the first instance of a subtle reconceptualization of the association’s purpose and also of who or what its units of concern were. This shift can be seen as to include the reinterpretation of the notion of security, to include a more concrete concern for human development, which addressed the need to create mechanisms and processes for the “freeing of people…from the physical and human constraints” so as to allow them to do “what they would freely choose to do” (Carabello-Anthony, 2004, 157). In 2003, the association decided to establish the ASEAN Community, which was to become a formal entity by 2015; the community was the most recent manifestation of this reinterpretation and was conceptually made up of a culmination of the ideational and material issues split into three pillars that addressed politico-security, economic and socio-cultural dimensions. The sub- community of which this thesis would endeavour to assess, along with other ASEAN formal declarations and agreements, would be the socio-cultural community or ASCC as it formally addressed women as part of its development agenda. Research Statement & Methodology In lieu of the formal instatement of the ASEAN Community in 2015, the thesis attempts to enquire into the association’s formal narratives on human development, with specific interest on women’s advancement. The thesis wants to uncover the reasons behind the inclusion; for the purpose of this thesis, ‘formal narratives’ are discourses that can be accessed publically in key declarations, and plans of action. By analyzing the terms and language these documents use to define women in the region, the research hopes to understand the motivations, limitations and deficiencies to ASEAN’s rationalizations. In the end, the thesis hopes to add to the discourse of women’s advancement in the region. As mentioned, the research looks assess key declarations, and plans of action. These specific documents were chosen due to their explicit inclusion of women as their unit of concern. The research would also use a key document from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), that is the Millennium Development Goals on gender equality and women empowerment, as a comparison to ASEAN’s ideational and material concerns on women. 5 The documents are listed in the table below: Table 1.1. Table of ASEAN Documents Used in Thesis ASEAN Declarations ASEAN Plans of Action International Document Declaration for the Hanoi Plan of Action 1998 UNDP Millennium Advancement of Women Development Goals on 1988 gender equality and women empowerment Declaration on the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Elimination of Violence Community Blueprint against Women 2004 Hanoi Declaration on ASEAN Committee on Enhancement of Welfare Women (ACW) Work and Development for Plan 2011-2015 ASEAN Women and Children 2010 Literature Review There are many literatures that are relevant to the research. Andaya’s (2006) book, The Flaming Womb, and particularly the chapter on “Women and Economic Change” gives a historical account of the various roles women played during the early modern period in Southeast Asia, noting that women were very significant actors in trade and commerce (104). Another book that charts the historical positioning of women is a book by Peletz (2009) called Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times in which the author explains the crippling effect of polarizing gender through “canonical orthodoxies” that merged colonial and religious ideologies (85). Both literatures are pertinent in highlighting the historical shift in women’s position as they began to be defined by their servitude to men, and their role in the home as opposed to the market place. There have also been numerous literatures on women in contemporary Southeast Asia and their roles in the labour economy. Elias (2010) discusses the gendered political economy that effects position of the disadvantageous female migrant worker in Southeast Asia through the “neglect of social relations of reproduction” in advancing labour rights (71). Following the theme of social reproduction, Elias (2010a) has also written about the invisibility of domestic workers in the rights-based discourse, 6 appealing for human rights standards to re-evaluate its universality (842). Whilst Elias, along with others, like Chin (1998) and Ong (2006)1, give an insightful account of the labour dimensions effecting the position of Southeast Asian women, they fall short of assessing the role of organizations like ASEAN in influencing these dimensions. Literatures that critique ASEAN’s economic development are also pertinent in providing perspectives on how marginalized groups, like women, are excluded in the overall discourse of Southeast Asian regional development. An article by Higgot & Nesadurai (2002) discusses the Southeast Asian Development Model initiated in 1980s by ASEAN member states and how this has “reflected an overwhelming emphasis on growth as a goal at the expense of development” (28). Another article by Carabello- Anthony’s (2004) discusses human security, and is critical of ASEAN’s emphasis on “regime stability and …economic development as a major means or instrument to bring domestic stability”, ignoring human development (161). Francisco (2007) discusses gender as “systemic barriers” and believes that “economic integration removes rather than reinforces” them (107). The literatures above discuss pivotal issues of the region, however there is a gap in discussing socio-economic rationalities within the region’s development discourse effecting marginalized groups, like women, and their genesis. The research hopes to add to this gap. Theory There are several theoretical frameworks that inform this research. Subaltern realism explains the behaviours of post-colonial territories like the ASEAN region, whereby Third World states are seen as the subalterns of the international political community; as state making was “directed and premeditated” by external forces that marked territorial boundaries arbitrarily, these states vie for survival through constantly negotiating political, economic and cultural lines (Ayoob 2002: 44). In this case, the extent of including women in ASEAN’s development discourse is dependent upon other forms of development that extend its member-states’ “pursuit of other identities and associated interests” (Narine 2009: 371). Graduated sovereignty is a perspective that emphasizes on the neoliberal rationalities and market calculations that treat populations according to the aim of maximizing returns, thus “different segments of the population are subjected 1 Chin and Ong have written on the exploitation of domestic workers in Malaysia and the factors that lead to them 7 to different technologies of regulation and nurturance” based on their profitability in the global capitalist system (Ong 2000, 58). Lastly, postcolonial feminist insights on development also help with rationalizing member-states’ behaviours. Kapoor (2008) discusses women in development, perceived as essential and suppressing, and suggests that subordination of women is multifaceted and beyond patriarchy, to include the adjustments towards neoliberal logic by post- colonial states that adopt a tradition-modernity dichotomy whereby women are located in the traditional realm (35). Scott (1995) extends this further by referring to the dichotomizing practices of development. She discusses how modernization theory’s “reliance upon evolutionary and linear notions of social and political change” creates an “oversimplification of the development process”, which allows for the “construction of traditional society” to be likened to “women, family and community” (23). Limitations & Ethical Concerns There are several limitations to highlight. Firstly, even though the thesis is only looking at three declarations and three plans of actions, there are many more documents that mention women’s advancement and protection; the thesis has had to limit its inquiry to six documents so as to consider enough space and time for evaluation and discussion, but the selection of documents also comes with the knowledge that many of these documents overlap in intents and purposes; thus the documents for this thesis were chosen based on their timeliness, and how they have content that adds, rather than reiterates, to the region’s women advancement discourse. The research could end up more descriptive than critical, as there are multiple dimensions that inform and contribute to ASEAN’s gender development discourse and this thesis may not extensively include all of them. However, due to temporal and spatial limitations, these various dimensions, including historical ones, cannot be explored in depth. The thesis is also limited in its access to the minutes of meetings and discussions involved in the culmination of the chosen documents due to time and resource constraints; this access would have been beneficial to understanding the rationalities of including women in the association’s human development agenda. The research would also be biased towards focusing on the rationalities and perspectives one segment of the regional society, that is the leaders in ASEAN, and not other affected segments. Subsequently, the thesis could have also benefitted immensely by including first-hand insights through structured 8 interviews but, as mentioned, the thesis was limited by spatial and temporal constraints. With all of the limitations considered, the thesis would end up rather abstract in its findings, and that can impede on further revealing and deconstructing the discourse it wishes to assess; if given more time, space and resources, the research would be expanded to include the limitations listed. Finally, an ethical concern would the bias of the researcher to have premature conclusions on the findings, as she is Southeast Asian woman, however the researcher hopes awareness of this bias would not pre-determine the research findings. 9 Chapter Two ASEAN official documents and their formal narratives As discussed earlier, formal narratives of ASEAN are entailed within key public documents published by the association. Thus this chapter involves the detailed assessment of formal documents ASEAN has put out in relation to women’s advancement, to look at the suggestions and the goals they intend to achieve, and the language in which these documents are framed within. Chapter three would then discuss the discourse surrounding the issue of women’s advancement and the possible rationalities behind them, as well as their limitations and deficits. It is helpful to understand that none of these documents are legally binding, and only offer suggestions for its signatories to endeavour in advancing women’s position in the region. Declarations a. Declaration of the Advancement of Women, 1988 There have been several declarations pertaining to the advancement of women in the ASEAN region. This declaration was the first formal ASEAN document to specifically address women, and it made special mention of the burgeoning role of women in the region, in which they “constitute half of the total population” of the region, and especially in understanding “the importance of active participation and integration of women in the region in sharing the future development and progress of ASEAN and the necessity of meeting the needs and aspiration of women in the ASEAN Member Countries” (ASEAN, 1988). The declaration further called for its signatories to endeavour in the promotion of women as “active agents and beneficiaries of national and regional development” in contributing to “just and peaceful societies”, as well as “a productive force to attain the full development of the human personality” (ibid). The declaration included brief mentions of ensuring the promotion of “programmes involving the participation of the community and nongovernmental organizations towards strengthening national and regional resilience” whilst also to “strengthen solidarity in the region and international women forum” (ibid). The document was highly rhetorical, mostly signaled a general understanding of the inclusion of women in the association’s human development agenda. The declaration did not offer any suggestions for proper implementation, or the extent to which member-states should participate in achieving these goals. 10