Youth, Poker and Facebook: Another Case of Candy Cigarettes? by Jennifer Reynolds A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Dalla Lana School of Public Health University of Toronto © Copyright by Jennifer Reynolds 2016 Youth, Poker and Facebook: Another Case of Candy Cigarettes? Jennifer Reynolds Doctor of Philosophy Dalla Lana School of Public Health University of Toronto 2016 Abstract A surge of unregulated gambling opportunities, referred to as social network gambling has emerged on social media platforms such as Facebook. This dissertation is a critical examination of social network gambling, more specifically, a virtual ethnographic case study, focusing on Zynga Poker (ZP). Through a two-phase qualitative research study, the aim was to: 1) examine the intentions of the game application and the influences of the ZP game design that youth are exposed to while playing; 2) explore the various perspectives of key stakeholders; and 3) investigate youths’ (aged 18–24 years) lived experiences of poker play on Facebook, to understand what motivates them to play, and how they perceive their participation. My study is rooted in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), Goffman’s frame analysis (1986), and the social networking theory of homophily (McPherson, Smith & Cook, 2001). Data were collected through personally participating in ZP, and interviews conducted with 15 key industry stakeholders and 15 youth (aged 18-24). Results found that social game developers are designing and framing social network gambling games as a harmless form of entertainment, shielded from regulation that accompanies a legal distinction of gambling. Further, results indicate three motivation themes as to why youth play ZP: 1) a way to relax and escape boredom; 2) to connect socially; and 3) to satisfy their ii desire for competitive gameplay. Youth perceive that under certain circumstances, ZP is a form of lower-stakes gambling and a potential training ground to develop the skills and confidence to migrate over to real money gambling on professional sites. Based on the analysis, this dissertation presents a Public Health Framework and Spectrum Model of Social Network Gaming/Gambling that emphasize dissolution of the dualism that currently exists between gambling and gaming. The Spectrum Model focuses on six dimensions: money, competitiveness, training environment, temporality, chasing losses, and rituals. The model illustrates the transitory and fluid nature of social gambling gameplay at the individual level, ranging from healthy to problematic. This study provides new understandings and warnings as we move forward to comprehend the possible benefits and unintended consequences of these gambling opportunities. The findings have particular implications for the protection and prevention of gambling-related harms to vulnerable populations, such as youth. iii Acknowledgements ،تم لأ ت ،تمل عت ف تري غت ف I suffered, I learned, I changed Undertaking and completing a dissertation not only challenged me in a multitude of ways, but ultimately changed who I am. However, this experience would not have been possible without the help, support, and encouragement from many people. First and foremost, I would like to thank the key stakeholders and youth that agreed to be interviewed. Their willingness to share their wisdom and personal experiences helped shape a rich understanding of social network gambling games. This research received funding from a number of different sources, without which it would not have been possible. I would like to thank the Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre (OPGRC) and Gambling Research and Exchange Ontario (GREO) for financially supporting me through various grants and fellowships over the years. Further, a special thank- you goes to Dr. David Shaw, whose kindness, generosity, and unwavering belief in the need for gambling research, was instrumental in allowing me to conduct my study and finish the program. Writing a dissertation can be an isolating undertaking, and in my case, one that lasted many years. Given my long doctoral journey, it is hard to articulate how much I appreciate my advisor and committee members for their patience, time, and encouragement. First to my thesis advisor, Dean Harvey Skinner. I am grateful for your wisdom and experience, especially in those moments of much needed advice and guidance. You were able to help direct me where I needed to go, even when I may not have been able to see it myself. In the end, you helped me achieve a dissertation in line with my passion and experience – and for that, I am truly grateful. Our ‘breakfast club’ meetings will be missed. To my committee memebers Dr’s Cameron Norman and Brenda Gladstone. You helped me rise to the challenge and gave me the flexibility and ongoing support needed to help me succeed. Cameron, we’ve been on a quite a journey together over the years. Your passion and knowledge about systems thinking and social media inspired and pushed me to think differently. I am grateful for the many thought-provoking discussions over coffee and look forward to iv continuing that tradition. Brenda, you may have joined my committee in the final stages, but I owe you many thanks. Your support and feedback can be witnessed throughout my thesis. My sincere gratitude for gently pushing me to continue to think deeper within the data analysis and interpretation. I could not have asked for a better qualitative mentor. I have an immense debt of gratitude to Dr. David Korn. Our 12 year journey together has been inspiring and life-changing. David, you introduced me to the world of gambling prevention and research. Your mentorship and friendship provided the flexibility and ideal space for me to embark on this doctoral journey. Working with you and learning from you has been a transforming experience. I am deeply thankful to all of my family for their love and support over the years. To my mom, Nancy, sister, Lisa and Chris - this dissertation is the answer to your ongoing question, “When will you be done?”. I am so happy to finally celebrate with you! Your support and patience made all the difference. Also, I would not be the person I am today had I not been surrounded by a fantastic group of fellow PhD students and close friends. I am grateful to Louise Smith, Clara Yee, Arif Jetha, Katia De Pinho Campos, Subha Ramanathan, and Hema Ramsingh. In particular, I must give a special thank you to Manuela Ferrari. There are not enough words to fully convey how much you mean to me and how indebted I am for your friendship and support. You picked me up when I was down and shared in my joys. You pushed me when I needed to be pushed, and took me out for wine when I needed to escape. Thank you for being such an incredible friend! Finally, I am grateful for the support and patience I received from my partner Firas. He lived with me during the final years of this journey and bore the brunt of my exhaustion, frustration, and self-doubt. Without your love and giving me the space, finishing this undertaking would not have been possible and for that, I am eternally grateful. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xiii Glossary of Terms ....................................................................................................................... xv List of Appendices .................................................................................................................... xviii Prologue: Candy Cigarettes ......................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Introduction. .............................................................................................................. 2 1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Gambling as a Public Health Issue ..................................................................................... 5 1.2.1 Public Health Gambling Conceptual Framework ................................................... 5 1.2.2 Youth Gambling as a Public Health Concern ......................................................... 7 1.3 The Research Problem ........................................................................................................ 8 1.4 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Preface: Moving Forward ................................................................................................. 14 1.6 Organization of the Thesis ................................................................................................ 15 1.7 My Position and Assumptions Within this Study ............................................................. 16 Chapter 2: Gaming Versus Gambling ...................................................................................... 19 2.1 What is Gaming? ............................................................................................................... 19 2.1.1 Definitions ............................................................................................................. 19 2.1.2 Epidemiology: Youth Gaming .............................................................................. 22 2.1.3 Online Game Design ............................................................................................. 24 2.2 What is Gambling? .......................................................................................................... 25 2.2.1 Definitions ............................................................................................................. 25 vi 2.2.2 Epidemiology: Youth Gambling ........................................................................... 28 2.2.3 Internet Gambling ................................................................................................. 31 2.2.4 Internet Poker ........................................................................................................ 33 2.3 Summary and Gaps in the Gaming and Gambling Literature ........................................... 36 3 Chapter 3: Facebook and Social Network Games/Gambling ............................................ 38 3.1 Social Networking Sites - Facebook ................................................................................. 38 3.2 Free-to-Play (F2P) Social Network Games ...................................................................... 40 3.2.1 Free-to-Play (F2P) Revenue Model ...................................................................... 42 3.3 Free-to-Play (F2P) Social Network Gambling ................................................................. 45 3.4 Convergence Between Social Network Games and Gambling ......................................... 48 3.5 Summary and Gaps in the Social Network Gambling Literature ..................................... 50 4 Chapter 4: Theoretical Underpinnings ............................................................................... 52 4.1 Theoretical Positioning ..................................................................................................... 53 4.1.1 Self-Determination Theory ................................................................................... 53 4.1.2 Erving Goffman’s Frame Analysis ....................................................................... 56 4.1.3 Social Networking Theory of Homophily ............................................................ 58 4.2 Research Questions and Objectives .................................................................................. 60 4.2.1 Phase One Research Questions and Objective ...................................................... 61 4.2.2 Phase Two Research Questions and Objective ..................................................... 61 5 Chapter 5: Research Design and Methods .......................................................................... 62 5.1 Methodology of Enquiry: Virtual Ethnographic Case Study ............................................ 62 5.2 The Ethnographic Case – Zynga Poker (ZP) .................................................................... 64 5.2.1 Market Share ......................................................................................................... 65 5.2.2 Free-to-Play (F2P) Business Model ...................................................................... 66 5.2.3 Zynga Poker Application ...................................................................................... 66 vii 5.3 Research Study .................................................................................................................. 69 5.4 Phase One: Data Set .......................................................................................................... 70 5.5 Phase Two: Data Set ......................................................................................................... 72 5.5.1 Key Stakeholder Interviews ................................................................................. 76 5.5.1.1 Sampling Strategies .............................................................................. 76 5.5.2 Youth Interviews ................................................................................................... 77 5.5.2.1 Sampling Strategies .............................................................................. 78 5.6 Data Management ............................................................................................................. 78 5.7 Analytic Strategies ............................................................................................................ 79 5.7.1 Situational Analysis of Visual Discourses ............................................................ 79 5.7.2 Thematic Analysis ................................................................................................ 81 5.7.3 Interactional Analysis: 5-Step Player Journey Framework .................................. 83 5.8 Analytic Memos ................................................................................................................ 86 5.9 Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................... 89 5.10 Trustworthiness ................................................................................................................. 89 5.10.1 Originality ............................................................................................................. 90 5.10.2 Credibility ............................................................................................................. 90 5.10.3 Resonance ............................................................................................................. 90 5.10.4 Usefulness ............................................................................................................. 91 5.11 Representing Qualitative Data .......................................................................................... 91 6 Chapter 6: Phase One Findings – Framing the Landscape ............................................. 92 6.1 Discourses of Social Connection, Harmlessness, Empowerment, and Virtual Consumerism .................................................................................................................... 93 6.1.1 The Social Connection Discourse ......................................................................... 93 6.1.2 The Harmlessness Discourse ................................................................................ 97 6.1.3 The Empowerment Discourse ............................................................................. 100 viii 6.1.4 The Virtual Consumerism Discourse .................................................................. 102 6.2 Interactional Analysis: 5-Step Player Journey Framework ............................................ 106 6.2.1 Player Insight ..................................................................................................... 106 6.2.2 Motivation .......................................................................................................... 110 6.2.3 Lifecycle ............................................................................................................ 111 6.2.3.1 Beginner Onboarding .......................................................................... 111 6.2.3.2 Habit-Building .................................................................................... 113 6.2.3.3 Mastery for Experts ............................................................................. 118 6.2.4 Progress .............................................................................................................. 118 6.2.5 Loops .................................................................................................................. 120 6.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 121 7 Chapter 7: Phase Two Findings – Key Stakeholder Interviews ...................................... 123 7.1 What is Going on Here? .................................................................................................. 123 7.1.1 Legal-Based Frame ............................................................................................. 124 7.1.2 Experiential Frame .............................................................................................. 125 7.2 Implications ..................................................................................................................... 127 7.2.1 Confusion ............................................................................................................ 127 7.2.2 Regulation ........................................................................................................... 130 7.3 Concerns ......................................................................................................................... 131 7.3.1 Migration to Real-Money Poker ......................................................................... 132 7.3.2 Loss of Time ....................................................................................................... 134 7.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 135 8 Chapter 8: Phase Two Findings – Lived Experiences of Youth Poker Play................... 137 8.1 Lived Experiences of Youths’ ZP Gameplay ................................................................. 137 8.1.1 The Initiation of Poker Play ................................................................................ 138 8.1.2 Getting Lost in Poker Play .................................................................................. 139 ix 8.1.3 Currency of Poker Play ....................................................................................... 142 8.1.3.1 Accumulating Chips ............................................................................ 143 8.1.3.2 Purchasing Chips ................................................................................ 148 8.1.4 In Pursuit of Winning – Emotional and Cognitive Aspects of Poker Play ......... 150 8.1.5 Inviting Luck ....................................................................................................... 154 8.2 Why Youth Play Poker on Facebook .............................................................................. 155 8.2.1 Escapism ............................................................................................................. 155 8.2.2 Sociality .............................................................................................................. 157 8.2.3 Competition, Training, and Strategic Advantage ............................................... 159 8.3 Migration From ZP Over to Real-Money Gambling ...................................................... 164 8.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 166 9 Chapter 9: Framing Youth Poker on Facebook: A Spectrum Model ............................. 167 9.1 Youths’ Perceptions of Their ZP Gameplay ................................................................... 168 9.1.1 “Gambling Lite” .................................................................................................. 168 9.1.2 For Me It’s a Game, but Not for Others… .......................................................... 171 9.2 Facebook Influences on Youths’ ZP Framing and Behaviour ........................................ 174 9.3 A Public Health Framework and the Spectrum Model of Social Network Gaming/Gambling ........................................................................................................... 176 9.4 Reflections ...................................................................................................................... 180 9.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 184 10 Chapter 10: Discussion ........................................................................................................ 185 10.1 ‘Money’ and ‘Chasing’ ................................................................................................... 186 10.2 ‘Competition’ and ‘Training’ – What is Going on Here? ............................................. 190 10.3 ‘Temporality’ ................................................................................................................. 193 10.4 ‘Lucky Rituals’ .............................................................................................................. 196 10.5 Implications ................................................................................................................... 197 x