Wind Energy Engineering This pageintentionallyleftblank Wind Energy Engineering A Handbook for Onshore and Offshore Wind Turbines Edited by Trevor M. Letcher AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1800,SanDiego,CA92101-4495,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom Copyrightr2017ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroaden ourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecome necessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingand usinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationor methodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomthey haveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeany liabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceor otherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthe materialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-809451-8 ForInformationonallAcademicPresspublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:JoeHayton AcquisitionEditor:LisaReading EditorialProjectManager:AshlieJackman ProductionProjectManager:AnushaSambamoorthy CoverDesigner:MatthewLimbert TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India Contents ListofContributors xvii Preface xix Part I Introduction 1. Why Wind Energy? TrevorM.Letcher 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 ClimateChange 3 1.3 Background 5 1.4 AdvantagesofWindEnergy 8 1.5 ChallengesFacingtheWindTurbineIndustry 10 1.6 ThePotentialofWindEnergyWorldwide 13 References 13 Part II Wind Resource and Wind Energy Worldwide 2. Wind Power Fundamentals AlexanderKalmikov 2.1 WindPhysicsBasics:WhatIsWindandHowWindIs Generated 17 2.2 WindTypes:BriefOverviewofWindPowerMeteorology 18 2.3 FundamentalEquationofWindPower:KineticEnergy FluxandWindPowerDensity 19 2.4 WindPowerCapture:EfficiencyinExtractingWind Power 21 2.5 Conclusion 23 References 23 v vi Contents 3. Estimation of Wind Energy Potential and Prediction of Wind Power JingShiandErginErdem 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 PrinciplesforSuccessfulDevelopmentforaWindAssessment Program 26 3.3 MainAspectsofaWindAssessmentProgram 28 3.4 EstimatingWindPowerBasedonWindSpeedMeasurements 33 3.5 WindResourceEstimationProject:ScopeandMethods 34 3.6 FurtherConsiderationsforWindSpeedAssessment 38 3.7 WindSpeedandPowerForecasting 39 3.8 Conclusions 44 References 44 4. Global Potential for Wind-Generated Electricity XiLuandMichaelB.McElroy 4.1 Introduction 51 4.2 Methodology 54 4.3 Results 58 4.3.1 GlobalPerspective 58 4.3.2 USPerspective 61 4.3.3 ChinaPerspective 65 4.4 ConcludingRemarks 68 Acknowledgments 71 References 71 5. The Future of Wind Energy Development in China Pei-yangGuo,Dan-yangZhu,JacquelineLam,andVictorO.K.Li 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 WindEnergyDevelopmentinChina 76 5.2.1 Overview 76 5.2.2 ElectricityMarketandWindEnergyMarketinChina 76 5.3 WindEnergyDevelopmentinChina:BarriersandDrivers 80 5.3.1 BarrierstoWindEnergyDevelopmentinChina 81 5.3.2 DriversofWindEnergyDevelopmentinChina 86 5.4 TheFutureofWindEnergyDevelopmentinChina 89 5.4.1 DistributedGenerationDeploymentandProactive TransmissionPlanning 89 5.4.2 OffshoreWindPowerPlanning 89 5.4.3 SmartGrid 90 5.4.4 Merit-Order-BasedDispatch 90 5.4.5 PricingImprovement 91 Contents vii 5.5 Conclusion 91 Acknowledgment 92 References 92 6. Wind Power in the German System—Research and Development for the Transition Toward a Sustainable Energy Future MatthiasLuther,KurtRohrig,andWilhelmWinter 6.1 IntegrationofRenewablesinGermanyandEurope 95 6.2 OnshoreandOffshoreWindDevelopment 99 6.3 NetworkOperationandGridDevelopment 102 6.3.1 InnovativeMethodstoPlanandOperatethePower System 105 6.3.2 TheSystemOperationNetworkCodes 108 6.3.3 TheMarket-RelatedNetworkCodes 108 6.3.4 TheConnection-RelatedNetworkCodes 109 6.4 FurtherResearchandDevelopmentforWindPower Integration 110 6.4.1 NewControlConceptsforPE-DominatedPowerSystems 111 6.4.2 WindPowerForecasts 112 6.4.3 WindFarmClusters 114 6.4.4 VirtualPowerPlants 117 6.4.5 SectorCouplingConcepts 118 6.4.6 EuropeanWindIntegrationProjectsandStudies 119 6.5 Summary 121 References 122 Part III Wind Turbine Technology 7. History of Harnessing Wind Power MagdiRagheb 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 WindMachinesinAntiquity 129 7.3 IslamicCivilizationWindmills 130 7.4 MedievalEuropeanWindmills 132 7.5 AegeanandMediterraneanWindmills 133 7.6 DutchandEuropeanWindmills 135 7.7 TheAmericanWindmill 138 7.8 HistoricalDevelopments 139 7.9 WindmillsApplications 141 7.10 Discussion 141 References 142 viii Contents 8. Wind Turbine Technologies AncaD.Hansen 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 OverviewofWindTurbineComponents 145 8.2.1 AerodynamicRotor 146 8.2.2 TransmissionSystem 146 8.2.3 Generator 147 8.2.4 PowerElectronicInterface 151 8.2.5 ControlSystemandWindTurbineControlCapabilities 152 8.3 ContemporaryWindTurbineTechnologies 155 8.3.1 Fixed-SpeedWindTurbines(Type1) 155 8.3.2 LimitedVariable-SpeedWindTurbines(Type2) 156 8.3.3 Variable-SpeedWindTurbinesWithPartial-Scale PowerConverter(Type3) 157 8.3.4 Variable-SpeedWindTurbinesWithFull-Scale PowerConverter(Type4) 158 8.4 Conclusions 159 References 159 9. Aerodynamics and Design of Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines MartinO.L.Hansen 9.1 Introduction 161 9.2 AShortDescriptiononHowaWindTurbineWorks 162 9.3 1DMomentumEquations 163 9.4 BladeElementMomentumMethod 167 9.4.1 TheBladeElementMomentumMethod 172 9.5 UseofSteadyBladeElementMomentumMethod 172 9.6 AerodynamicBladeDesign 178 9.7 UnsteadyLoadsandFatigue 181 9.8 BriefDescriptionofDesignProcess 183 References 183 10. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: Farm and Turbine Design RobertWhittlesey 10.1 VerticalAxisWindTurbinesHistory 185 10.2 VerticalAxisWindFarms 186 10.2.1 InitialResearchonVAWTFarms 186 10.2.2 PowerDensity 187 10.3 DesignGuidelines 188 10.3.1 PowerCoefficient 189 Contents ix 10.3.2 LiftVersusDrag-BasedVAWT 189 10.3.3 Starting 193 10.3.4 BladeAirfoilChoice 194 10.3.5 Blade-TipVortices 197 10.3.6 BladeReynoldsNumber 198 10.3.7 TurbineMass 198 10.3.8 TurbineDiameter 198 10.3.9 NumberofBlades 199 10.3.10 Struts 199 10.4 Summary 200 References 200 11. Multielement Airfoils for Wind Turbines AdamM.RaghebandMichaelS.Selig 11.1 Introduction 203 11.2 TransportationBenefits 204 11.3 StructuralBenefits 205 11.4 MultielementWindTurbineBlades 206 11.5 OtherMultielementWindTurbineResearch 215 11.6 Discussion 216 Acknowledgments 217 References 218 12. Civil Engineering Aspects of a Wind Farm and Wind Turbine Structures SubhamoyBhattacharya 12.1 EnergyChallenge 221 12.2 WindFarmandFukushimaNucleardisaster 221 12.2.1 CaseStudy:PerformanceofNearShore WindFarmDuring2012TohokuEarthquake 221 12.3 WindFarmSiteSelection 224 12.3.1 CaseStudies:BurboWindFarm (seeFig.12.6forlocation) 226 12.3.2 ASIDEontheEconomics 227 12.4 GeneralArrangementofaWindFarm 228 12.5 ChoiceofFoundationsforaSite 228 12.6 FoundationTypes 228 12.6.1 Gravity-BasedFoundationSystem 233 12.6.2 SuctionBucketsorCaissons 233 12.6.3 PileFoundations 234 12.6.4 SeabedFrameorJacketSupportingSupported onPileorCaissons 235 12.6.5 FloatingTurbineSystem 237