Western Arabia Luitgard Mols Arnoud Vrolijk in the Leiden Collections Traces of aa CColourfuul PPastt LEIDEN PUBLICATIONS Western Arabia Luitgard Mols Arnoud Vrolijk in the Leiden Collections Traces of a Colourful Past LEIDEN PUBLICATIONS 1 2 Contents Foreword 4 Acknowledgements 5 Introduction – Collectors in Western Arabia 6 Chapter 1 – Religion in Western Arabia 17 Chapter 2 – The Geography of the Holy Places 35 Chapter 3 – The Hajj to Mecca 55 Chapter 4 – History 83 Chapter 5 – Literary Culture 101 Chapter 6 – Public Life 121 Chapter 7 – Dress and Animal Trappings 139 Chapter 8 – Family Life in Mecca 161 Appendix I – Locating the Collections 182 Appendix II – Dutch Diplomats in Jeddah 183 Bibliography 184 Index of Persons 190 Colophon 192 3 Foreword In 2017 Leiden University is celebrating its Asia Year. travel to Mecca from all corners of the globe. From the The University Library at Witte Singel, an attractive design early 1870s until 1950 the Dutch were part of this global from the late 1970s, has been completely modernised and experience in their role of colonial rulers of Indonesia. refurbished and is now adding an additional fl oor, creating From the Dutch Consulate in Jeddah they facilitated The Asian Library to house the University’s world- the Indonesian pilgrims’ journey, while keeping a close class collections from China, Japan, Korea, the Indian watch on their movements. Consuls, scholars from Leiden, subcontinent and Southeast Asia, and also to support shipping agents and occasional travellers acquired books, excellent research and teaching. This operation refl ects photographs and ethnographical objects that together not only an acute awareness that the world is changing draw a vivid picture of everyday life in Western Arabia but also an ambition to be part of that change. Likewise, during that period. These collections could never have the Museum Volkenkunde (Museum of Ethnology) been assembled without the support of the Consulate’s in Leiden, founded in 1837, has undergone a complete Indonesian dragomans or interpreters, who spoke Arabic overhaul in recent years to enhance the presentation of its and were well acquainted with Arabian society, or the rich collections to a growing national and international contribution of local Arab scholars, professionals and public. In 2014 Museum Volkenkunde merged with the merchants. To our knowledge, this tripartite cooperation Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam and the Afrika Museum between Dutch, Indonesians and Arabs was unique at the in Berg en Dal to form the Nationaal Museum van time. Wereldculturen (National Museum of World Cultures). Its collections – containing some 375,000 objects and 750,000 Materials on paper were dispatched to the Leiden photographs – are of world-class quality and refl ect the University Library, while the artefacts found a new Museum’s mission of enhancing an open view on the home at Museum Volkenkunde. In this volume, Western world. Arabia in the Leiden Collections: Traces of a Colourful Past, authors Luitgard Mols and Arnoud Vrolijk seek to bring The close ties between Leiden University and Museum both collections together again by highlighting a wide Volkenkunde go back a long way. More often than not, selection of objects against the background of their the curators who work with the Museum’s collections also original historical context, enhanced with more than 160 teach at the University and vice versa, and collections illustrations. and expertise are mutually exchanged with a refreshing liberality, as in the 2013–2014 exhibition Longing for Mecca. We eagerly avail ourselves of the opportunity to thank The Pilgrim’s Journey on the Hajj to Mecca, which attracted Saudi Aramco, the national petroleum company of Saudi a record number of visitors to the Museum. The book you Arabia, and its daughter company, Aramco Overseas in are now holding in your hands is yet another expression of The Hague, for their generous support of this book project. this cooperation. Aramco has also supported the Museum Volkenkunde’s 2013–2014 exhibition on the Hajj and its current semi- Although geography works very well as a guiding principle permanent display on Mecca and the pilgrimage. We in the organisation of a library or museum, we fully realise appreciate the fact that Aramco, a global player par that the human endeavour often transcends physical or excellence, still cherishes the history and culture of its virtual boundaries. During the Hajj, millions of pilgrims home country. Kurt De Belder Stijn Schoonderwoerd University Librarian Director of the National & Director of Leiden Museum of World Cultures University Libraries 4 Acknowledgements This book could never have been written without the kind Furthermore, the following colleagues and friends helped and generous support of many friends and colleagues. First us out in all sorts of ways, from sharing information of all we would like to gratefully acknowledge Aramco, and unearthing inaccessible publications, to giving us the national oil company of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, encouragement in our project: Pieter Allersma, Jake whose grant – and im plicit trust – made the book possible. Benson, André Bouwman, Fransje Brinkgreve, Laura van The Leiden University colleagues who supported our Broekhoven, Ester de Bruin, Rob Buijing, Ingeborg Eggink, proposal in their discussions with Aramco were Lilian Werner Ende, John Frankhuizen, Ulrike Freitag, Aarnout Visscher (Head of Alumni Relations and Funding), Kasper Helb, Ahmad al-Jallad, Nadine Jouhat, Michael Kemper, van Ommen (External Relations Offi cer) and Professors Jan Krugers, Richard van Leeuwen, Harm Linsen, Wayne Léon Buskens and Petra Sijpesteijn as directors of the Modest, Dirry Oostdam, Anne van Oostrum, Liesbeth LUCIS Research School. At Leiden University Press, Ouwehand, Simon Pelle, Venetia Porter, Karin Scheper, publisher Anniek Meinders and her team provided Annette Schmidt, Kathryn Schwartz, Mirjam Shatanawi, their expertise to see our book through. Erin Martineau Joop Span, Lex Verhey, Anita Verweij, Wonu Veys and Bert proofread our English text with meticulous care. Ben van der Zwan. Needless to say, the responsibility for any Grishaaver, Irene de Groot, Peter Hilz, Nico van Rooijen errors or omissions rests entirely with us. and Hans Tisseur photographed the objects or made digital reproductions with endless patience. As always, We thank our partners Harold van der Weegen and designer Jelle Hellinga (The Hague) turned our text and Jenny de Roode for their patience and support during the images into an object of beauty. preparation of this book. Finally, we jointly dedicate this book to our children Alexandra, Clarice, Clarisse, Nadine, Steven and Veronica. October 2016, Luitgard Mols and Arnoud Vrolijk 5 Introduction – Collectors in Western Arabia It is nothing short of a miracle that the provincial town of Leiden, the Netherlands, possesses two fascinating collections related to Western Arabia, also known as the Hejaz. The region owes its fame fi rst and foremost to Mecca and Medina, the holiest cities of Islam. One collection, consisting mainly of historical objects of everyday use, clothing items, pilgrim souvenirs and other artefacts, is preserved in the Museum Volkenkunde (established in 1837); the other, containing Islamic manuscripts, photographs, letters, printed books and audiovisual materials, is kept in the library of Leiden University (founded in 1575). Together, they provide a unique insight into a colourful and vibrant society which has all but vanished under the impact of changing political and religious allegiances and the onslaught of modernity. The fact that these collections exist at all can only be explained in terms of the Dutch colonial presence in the Indonesian Archipelago prior to 1942. Under the legislation of the Netherlands East Indies freedom of religion was granted to Muslims, who then as now constituted the vast majority of the population. This freedom included the right to go on Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca which is incumbent on every Muslim who can aff ord to do so. Nonetheless, this right was granted only with the greatest [Plate 1] Photograph of the exterior of the Dutch Consulate, reluctance, since the Dutch colonial administration feared Jeddah c. 1910, probably by Consul N. Scheltema. [UBL Or. 26.365: 1] that pilgrims would turn into ‘fanatical Muslims’ once they were exposed to co-religionists from other parts of the Islamic world not under European colonial domination, (1811–1874).1 In 1930 the consulate was upgraded to the such as the Ottoman Empire. These misgivings were only status of legation. In all, nineteen Dutch diplomats served increased by the fact that the Holy Cities of Islam were in the Hejaz until 1950, when the last envoy, Herman Henry impenetrable to non-Muslims. As a result, most political Dingemans (1907–1985), formally handed over the legation unrest in the Dutch colonies was attributed to pilgrims to the newly independent Republic of Indonesia.2 returning from Mecca. Jeddah was never an easy post for the Dutch consuls, who It was only after the emergence of steam navigation in were ill adapted to the scorching heat and humidity of the the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the second half Hejaz coast. Although there had been no major outbreaks of the nineteenth century, and the consequent rise of violence against European residents since 1858, they in the numbers of pilgrims, that the need arose for a were tolerated rather than accepted in the heartland more reliable infrastructure for the Indonesian Hajj. of Islam. The social contacts of the tiny Dutch colony, Authorities preferred that pilgrims be transported by consisting of the consul and his staff , the odd shipping Dutch – or at least European – shipping companies, and agent and the representatives of trading fi rms such as the their movements were controlled by an elaborate system Nederlandsche Handels Maatschappij, were limited to of visas and other travel documents. In 1872 the Ottoman their counterparts from other European colonial powers. Empire, which included most of the Arab world, allowed For their relations with the Muslim population, the Dutch the Dutch to establish a consulate in Jeddah, the main were largely dependent on their dragomans, interpreters port of entry for sea passengers [Plate 1]. The fi rst Dutch who usually were highly educated Indonesians who spoke consul in Jeddah was Rudolph W.J.C. de Menthon Bake Arabic and were well acquainted with Arabian society. 6 [Plate 2] Photograph of the drawing room of the Dutch [Plate 3] Photograph of the European staff of the Dutch Consulate, Jeddah c. 1910, probably by Consul N. Scheltema. Consulate, Jeddah 1884. From left to right: Consul [UBL Or. 26.365: 3] J.A. Kruyt, C. Snouck Hurgronje and P.N. van der Chijs, detail. [UBL Or. 26.404: 1] Indonesian pilgrims journeyed to Mecca and Medina in Both during his stay in Arabia and in the ensuing years, large numbers – in many years they were even the largest Snouck Hurgronje was an avid collector of ethnological contingent – and life at the Consulate was consequently research materials, irrespective of purpose or medium, hectic during the pilgrimage season, but otherwise the which could complete the picture of his fi rst-hand Dutch consuls and their staff had more than enough observations of local Meccan life. These materials were leisure time on their hands [Plate 2]. shipped to Leiden with the generous help of Pieter Nicolaas van der Chijs (d. 1889), a Dutch shipping agent and vice- Fortunately, many consuls put their leisure time to good consul in Jeddah [Plate 3]. The powerful and overbearing use. Johannes Adrianus Kruyt (1841–1928), for instance, Snouck Hurgronje is often credited exclusively with the who was consul from 1878 until early 1885, took an active Arabian collections in Leiden, but this is only partly true. interest in the Hejaz and in 1880 published a lengthy Consul Kruyt, to name but one example, was a collector in article on Jeddah and its hinterland.3 It was the same his own right who donated a sizeable collection of artefacts Consul Kruyt who, when on leave in the Netherlands in to the Museum Volkenkunde. Snouck Hurgronje’s interest 1884, contacted the young Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje in Arabia dwindled during his stay in the Netherlands (1857–1936), an Arabist and Islam scholar from Leiden who East Indies, but was revived after his return to Leiden in had written his doctoral dissertation on the origins of the 1906. He advised the government on the appointment of Hajj.4 With the help of Kruyt, Snouck Hurgronje obtained Dutch consuls in Jeddah, many of whom had also been a government grant of 1500 Dutch guilders (roughly his own students. He corresponded frequently with them, 700 euros) to travel to Jeddah and monitor the radical but there is nothing to prove that the consuls collected tendencies among the Indonesian pilgrims and residents materials exclusively at Snouck Hurgronje’s behest. For in Arabia. Together they arrived in Jeddah in August 1884. instance, he may not have been aware that Emile Gobée Snouck Hurgronje, who spent the fi rst months as a guest (1881–1954, consul in Jeddah between 1917 and 1921) was of the consul, converted to Islam and in February 1885 privately collecting ethnographica, as a paragraph from travelled onwards to Mecca, where he observed local life a letter by Consul Daniël van der Meulen to Snouck until he was expelled from Arabia in August 1885, just Hurgronje suggests: ‘Then I heard to my great surprise that before the Hajj of that year. His two-volume monograph Gobée was ever busy collecting ethnographica here. Didn’t Mekka 5 was critically acclaimed and paved the way for you tell me that he had failed to do this, in spite of your several infl uential advisorships on Islamic, indigenous insistence?’7 and Arab aff airs in the Netherlands East Indies. He stayed in the colonies from 1889 until 1906, when he took up Until recently, little attention was devoted to the the chair of Arabic in Leiden. He retired in 1927 and died Indonesian dragomans of the Dutch Consulate, such as in 1936, only six years before the Dutch domination of the Javanese aristocrat Raden Abu Bakar Djajadiningrat Indonesia would come to a sudden and violent end.6 (c.1854–c.1914)8 [Plate 4] or the Sumatran Haji Agus 7 [Plate 4] ‘A Javanese resident of Mecca’, photograph of [Plate 5] Selection of Arabian everyday wares and dragoman Raden Abu Bakar Djajadiningrat, probably by C. souvenirs. Chromolithograph in C. Snouck Hurgronje, Snouck Hurgronje, 1884 or 1885. [UBL Or. 26.403: 66] Bilder-Atlas zu Mekka, Haag 1888, plate 37. [UBL 21522 A 16] Salim (1884–1954),9 one of the fathers of Indonesian collection is far from comprehensive, the objects visualise independence. As Muslims they were in an ideal position key social phenomena such as the presentation of food, to gather information, render services and seek out reliable welcoming and farewell rituals, dress codes and pastimes. suppliers of ethnological artefacts in Mecca. The local The collectors chose to assemble both everyday wares scholars, merchants and dealers, whose expertise and and luxury items whose richness of materials, decorative commitment were absolutely indispensable to the Dutch patterns and wide colour palette attracted attention [Plate collectors, remain even more obscure, with the notable 5]. And it is these characteristic details that escape us in exception of Sayyid ‘Abd al-Ghaff ar ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman the black-and-white photographic images of the Hejaz, al-Baghdadi, a physician who took photographs of Mecca in which objects were present but hardly ever the main during and after Snouck Hurgronje’s sojourn in Arabia. focus. Moreover, the objects exemplify the high level of Yet Snouck Hurgronje managed to avoid mentioning his craftsmanship in late nineteenth-century Western Arabia, Arab associate’s name but not his role in the creation of when even water jars of cheap unglazed earthenware were many attractive photographs of Mecca and the Hajj, and embellished with intricate geometric patterns. he chose to describe him as his ‘pupil’ and as a mere tool in his hands.10 Perhaps it is better to describe the work This collection is striking in several ways. Firstly, contrary of all those concerned as a collective eff ort; in any case to expectations, the collectors chose to represent both it is now generally accepted that the contribution of the secular and religious aspects of daily life instead of Oriental collaborators has ‘coloured Western scholarly focusing exclusively on religious artefacts. In fact, less than interpretation of Muslim society’.11 fi fteen per cent of the more than 400 Western Arabian artefacts relate to the Islamic faith or the Hajj. While this Museum Volkenkunde, Leiden might partly be explained by the interest of the collectors, perhaps more important is the fact that this was entirely The late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century in line with the wide scope of the collections from Japan, ethnographic Hejaz collection in Museum Volkenkunde China and Indonesia, which had already been part of (Museum of Ethnology) consists mostly of artefacts Museum Volkenkunde in Leiden for decades and which that were originally used in a Western Arabian probably served as an example. Secondly, it is noteworthy domestic setting, either urban or Bedouin. Although the that the collectors chose to portray late nineteenth- 8 century Meccan society as almost devoid of modern Consul Kruyt practiced what he preached: in a public development. Western imported objects that were rapidly lecture and article he called for scientifi c research on the replacing local kitchen utensils, display objects or lighting Arabian Peninsula in the fi elds of geography, philology, devices, such as candelabra in the houses of the well-to- ethnography and botany and on the phenomenon of do, were hardly collected at all.12 This can be explained pilgrimage.16 He surmised that collecting naturalia, as a typical orientalist approach in which the romantic ethnographical objects, coins and inscriptions would not East was portrayed as static and unchanging, but it might only advance Dutch academic knowledge of the Arabian simultaneously have been a deliberate choice to focus on, Peninsula, but also provide information for possible and preserve, what was rapidly disappearing. trading opportunities. This topic was close to Kruyt’s heart, as he envisioned the development of a Dutch The Western Arabian collection in Museum Volkenkunde trading establishment in Jeddah as an alternative to Port was assembled between 1880 and 1939 by ten Dutchmen: Said, Egypt. That his taste for collecting remained strong six consuls/envoys at the Dutch Consulate in Jeddah, is obvious from a letter to Museum director Serrurier a vice-consul, two academics and an engineer. With in which Kruyt articulated his intention to continue his a total of 86 objects dispatched to the Museum in fi ve collecting activities for the Museum after his relocation separate batches between 1880 and 1885, Consul Kruyt to his new post in Penang in the Straits Settlements.17 laid the foundation of the Museum’s Western Arabian Serrurier’s enthusiasm for expanding the collections and collection. He was the most active collector after Snouck his personal involvement with the collectors might have Hurgronje. His enthusiasm seems to have caught on: his also stimulated the consuls in procuring the objects. They direct successors, Joan Adriaan de Vicq (1857–1899, consul not only provided him with lists of the objects’ names in between 1885–1889), Hendrik Spakler (1861–1936, consul Arabic, in transliteration and in Dutch but also added between 1889–1892) and Hendrik van der Houven van precious information about their particular functions and Oordt (1865–1892, briefl y consul in 1892), donated twelve, uses.18 44 and 21 objects to the Museum respectively. It remains unclear, though, how these four consuls actually acquired Kruyt’s initiative to recommend Snouck Hurgronje the objects and to what extent local informants aided as a special advisor to the Dutch government in the them. There can be no doubt, however, that collecting Hejaz in 1884 was also instrumental for the growth of activities in Mecca or Medina required the assistance the Museum’s collection of Western Arabian artefacts. of Muslim intermediaries. In their letters to Museum Snouck Hurgronje’s academic interest in the region was director Lindor Serrurier, the consuls remained silent on already evident from his research into the origins of this topic. An exceptional recognition of the involvement the Hajj. He started collecting objects during his stay in of the Muslim citizens of Jeddah was a brief reference the Hejaz, in Jeddah from August 1884 to February 1885 in the Nederlandsche Staats-Courant (Dutch Government and subsequently in Mecca until August 1885. These Gazette). It mentioned that three gentlemen from Jeddah, complemented the observations he was entrusting Hasan Jawhar, Sayyid ‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Saqqaf to paper and the visual information derived from his and Yusuf Qudsi Efendi, had donated several items of dress photographs of people and daily life. He did not allow his and a saddle to the Museum through the intervention hasty departure in the summer of 1885 to compromise his of Consul Kruyt.13 The article did not disclose any collecting activities. During the next three years he time information about their background, but all three appear and again made requests to Vice-Consul Van der Chijs in Snouck Hurgronje’s diary or correspondence. Hasan and dragoman Raden Abu Bakar Djajadiningrat to collect Jawhar belonged to a merchant family of British Indian objects for him. The latter also did so in Mecca.19 Their descent. His son ‘Ali was one of the fi rst to welcome Snouck extensive correspondence shows Snouck Hurgronje’s Hurgronje upon his arrival in Jeddah. ‘Umar al-Saqqaf persistence and Van der Chijs’s willingness to procure a (‘El Sagoff ’), from a merchant family with strong ties to wide range of objects, from a Kiswa fragment that once Southeast Asia, was active in the transport of pilgrims covered the Ka’ba, earthenware water jugs, musical from Singapore. He was also the owner of the Dutch instruments, clothes, sandals and jewellery, to bottles Consulate building. Jawhar and al-Saqqaf were in business of Zamzam water [Plate 6].20 Of the latter he demanded with Vice-Consul Van der Chijs. Qudsi, apparently a several litres with the aim of scientifi cally analysing the convert, was the dragoman of the British Consulate.14 In all water’s components, and comparing this with the results of probability, Yusuf Qudsi and ‘Umar al-Saqqaf also aided water tests from other Hejazi sources.21 the Dutch consuls in acquiring objects.15 9