FM 3-01.80 (FM 44-80) HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY VISUAL AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION January 2006 DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies and their contractors only to protect technical or operational information for official government use. This determination was made on 21 May 2004. Other requests must be referred to Commandant, United States Army Air Defense Artillery School, ATTN: ATSA-DT-IDT, Fort Bliss, TX 79916-3802. DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or reconstruction of the document. FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY *FM 3-01.80 Field Manual Headquarters No. 3-01.80 Department of the Army Washington, DC, 17 January 2006 VISUAL AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION Contents Page Preface ..................................................................................................................................................................... iii Chapter 1 NEED FOR VISUAL AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION Reasons for Visual Aircraft Recognition.........................................................................................1-1 Air Threat ........................................................................................................................................ 1-2 Chapter 2 FACTORS THAT AFFECT DETECTION, RECOGNITION, AND IDENTIFICATION Aircraft Confusion ........................................................................................................................... 2-1 Physical Factors ............................................................................................................................. 2-3 Observer Procedures and Techniques........................................................................................... 2-9 Systematic Methods of Search and Scan .................................................................................... 2-12 Search Techniques....................................................................................................................... 2-13 __________________________ DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies and their contractors only to protect technical or operational information for official government use. This determination was made on 21 May 2004. Other requests must be referred to Commandant, United States Army Air Defense Artillery School, ATTN: ATSA-DT-IDT, Fort Bliss, TX 79916-3802. DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or reconstruction of the document * This publication supersedes FM 44-80, dated 30 September 1996. FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Use of Binoculars ......................................................................................................................... 2-14 Special Recognition...................................................................................................................... 2-16 Chapter 3 DESCRIPTION OF AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION Aircraft Recognition and Identification Features ............................................................................ 3-1 Typical Aircraft Types ................................................................................................................... 3-26 United Kingdom ............................................................................................................................ 3-31 Chapter 4 INSTRUCTION PROGRAM Training Program ............................................................................................................................ 4-1 Fundamentals ................................................................................................................................. 4-6 Slide Kit Training ............................................................................................................................ 4-7 Aircraft Teaching Technique......................................................................................................... 4-12 Chapter 5 GROUND ATTACK, CLOSE AIR SUPPORT, AND FIGHTER-BOMBER AIRCRAFT................ 5-1 Chapter 6 AIR SUPERIORITY ....................................................................................................................... 6-1 Chapter 7 BOMBER AIRCRAFT .................................................................................................................... 7-1 Chapter 8 CARGO AND TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT ...................................................................................... 8-1 Chapter 9 UTILITY AIRCRAFT ...................................................................................................................... 9-1 Chapter 10 HELICOPTER AIRCRAFT........................................................................................................... 10-1 Chapter 11 EARLY WARNING, OBSERVATION, AND RECONNAISSANCE AIRCRAFT ......................... 11-1 Chapter 12 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES AND CRUISE MISSILES ..................................................... 12-1 Appendix MASTER AIRCRAFT LIST ............................................................................................... Appendix-1 Glossary.....................................................................................................................................................Glossary-1 References.............................................................................................................................................References-1 FM 3-01.80 ii 17 January 2006 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY PREFACE This manual is primarily a ready reference to assist the ground observer in aircraft recognition and identification. It provides information on current operational aircraft of the United States and foreign countries, which may be observed worldwide in the combat area. It can be used as source material for personnel conducting unit training in visual aircraft recognition. The procedures in this publication apply throughout the US Army. The data is based on the best information available at the time of publication; however, it is not all-inclusive because of some classification guidelines. This publication, by nature, has a built-in time lag, and some aircraft may still be under development or classified at the time of writing, but may be fielded or unclassified at, or after, publication. The provisions of this publication are the subject of international agreement QSTAG 699, Aircraft Recognition Training. This publication applies to the Active Army, the Army National Guard (ARNG)/Army National Guard of the United States (ARNGUS), and the United States Army Reserve (USAR) unless otherwise stated. The proponent of this publication is the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC). Submit changes for improving this publication on DA Form 2028, Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms, and forward it to Commandant, US Army Air Defense Artillery School, ATTN: ATSA-DT-IDT, Fort Bliss, TX 79916-3802. FM 3-01.80 is available, by request, in a non DA-authenticated compact disc (CD) format. Forward requests to the proponent address listed above and include your complete mailing address and telephone number. FM 3-01.80 iii 17 January 2006 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The US Army Air Defense Artillery School wishes to thank the following persons and organizations/corporations who have provided and or given permission to use their photographs in this manual, and in other US Army aircraft recognition products. This furnished material should be used for training purposes only. Some of the organizations/corporations have reorganized, combined, renamed, or have been dissolved since their submissions. If you have aircraft photographs (to include unmanned aerial vehicles) tha t you would like to include in the next edition of this manual and or other US Army visual aircraft training products, please forward them, with release/permission to use the photographs, to Commandant, US Army Air Defense Artillery School, ATTN: ATSA-DT-IDT, Fort Bliss, TX 79916-3802. FM 3-01.80 iv 17 January 2006 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Chapter 1 Need for Visual Aircraft Recognition This chapter outlines the causes for the decline in recognition skills in the past, the reasons for visual aircraft recognition skills today, and an overview of the potential threat. Air platforms are as much a part of the battlespace as tanks and artillery. These aircraft, with their various roles and missions, add a vertical dimension. Their presence must be accepted and dealt with by every Soldier. On today’s battlefield, a Soldier must be able to recognize and identify both friendly and threat aircraft. Since there may be many of each type, aircraft recognition training is necessary for every Soldier in the combat force. REASONS FOR VISUAL AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION 1-1. The emphasis on visual aircraft recognition declined as a required skill for ground-based weapons crewmembers. Causes of the decline were due to the following: • The substitution of guided missiles for large antiaircraft guns. • The assumption that United States (US) forces would continue to maintain air superiority. • The reliance upon electronic equipment for aircraft identification as hostile or friendly. FM 3-01.80 1-1 17 January 2006 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 1-2. The need for visual aircraft recognition skills has become more critical since the development of: • An analysis of past military actions shows aircraft losses to air defense guns and small arms. It has reestablished that the Soldier on the ground is capable of inflicting heavy losses on aircraft operating at low altitudes. • Continued air superiority over every battlefield is not possible. • Electronic identification has limitations and small units or individual Soldiers do not always have access to these devices. • Visual recognition and identification of specific aircraft types and timely reporting provide the S2 and G2 shops additional information of a passive nature in the form of early warning, threat air capability, or information on a possible new tactical situation such as supply drops, defoliation, or photographic reconnaissance. 1-3. The provision of large numbers of air defense (AD) weapon systems to all divisional and some non-divisional ground combat forces generates additional emphasis on the need for visual aircraft recognition. Crew and team members of these weapon systems depend on visual recognition and identification of aircraft when making engagement decisions. The effectiveness of weapon systems in defeating the low-altitude air threat is directly affected by the skills of the crews and teams in recognition and identification of aircraft. 1-4. Air defense personnel follow rules of engagement (ROE) and include hostile target criteria, identification, friend or foe (IFF), sensors, and air defense warnings in making their engagement decisions. Additionally, weapon control statuses (WCSs) apply to air defense systems in particular, and may be a part of the supported ground force standing operating procedures (SOP) as well. 1-5. The WCS sets the degree of control over the firing of AD weapon systems. During wartime, aircraft are fired on according to the WCS in effect. The WCSs are: • WEAPONS FREE: Fire at any aircraft not positively identified as friendly. • WEAPONS TIGHT: Fire only at aircraft positively identified as hostile according to the prevailing hostile target criteria. • WEAPONS HOLD: Do not fire except in self-defense. This status may be set in an area in terms of aircraft type and time. For example, “WEAPONS HOLD, rotary wing, 1400 to 1500 hours” only applies to helicopters, and at that time of day. AIR THREAT 1-6. The breakup of the former Soviet Union and restructuring into the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) does not diminish the fact that thousands of aircraft of many types that were manufactured by the former USSR are in the inventories of potential enemies of the US and its allies. Additionally, the CIS will maintain standing military forces that include these aircraft. FM 3-01.80 1-2 17 January 2006 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 1-7. Aircraft manufactured by friendly countries can also be a threat in some areas of operation. For example, the A-4 Skyhawk and Mirage F1 were in the hands of the Iraqi military during the Persian Gulf War. The current air threat makeup is of various types of aircraft with specific missions to perform. Specific threat information in your area of operation is included in your unit’s operation order and tactical SOP. 1-8. The major air threat to friendly ground forces in the forward area near the line of contact is unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and helicopters. The threat will also consist of low-performance, close air support (CAS), and high- performance (leaker) ground-attack aircraft. These aircraft will conduct reconnaissance, surveillance, interdiction, antiarmor, and troop support missions. 1-9. Elements in the division and corps rear areas, especially nuclear-capable units, command and control, logistics facilities and reserve forces, can expect repeated attacks by high-performance aircraft. Fighter-bombers and ground- attack aircraft will also be used to attack convoys. 1-10. Expect attacks in the early morning. Pilots are rested and their aircraft are readied for the first sortie of the day. The danger of attack increases again near noon and in the early evening. However, surveillance for threat aircraft is a 24-hour mission. The enemy’s order of battle, combat capability, readiness, and will to fight are some of the factors that will determine the times and rates of sorties. 1-11. Members of the ground forces should understand that while an aircraft may be hostile, not all hostile aircraft are a direct threat. For example, an interceptor or high-flying reconnaissance aircraft is of little or no threat when compared with UAVs, helicopters, or CAS aircraft. 1-12. Threat interceptor aircraft are normally given the mission of countering friendly aircraft on approaches, flanks, and beyond the maximum range of forward area air defense (FAAD) weapon systems. These hostile aircraft will seldom enter the engagement range since their normal operating altitudes are suitable only for air combat. Additionally, high- flying reconnaissance aircraft are not normally within the engagement range. FM 3-01.80 1-3 17 January 2006 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY This page intentionally left blank. Chapter 2 Factors That Affect Detection, Recognition, and Identification This chapter covers early recognition and identification, aircraft confusion, physical factors, and search techniques. It also covers markings and camouflage, use of binoculars, and other recognition considerations. Every attempt made at visual aircraft recognition involves two events. First, an aircraft must be detected. Second, the aircraft must be inspected to distinguish the characteristics or shape that makes it recognizable as a particular aircraft. Since detection, recognition and identification, are all visual processes, an aircraft must be detected, recognized and then identified at the farthest range possible, to make a timely engagement decision and or to report the aircraft. The task requires good, corrected if necessary, eyesight. The farther out an aircraft can be detected, recognized, and identified, the more time a gunner has to make an engagement decision. If the gunner is not going to engage the aircraft, then early recognition and identification will allow time to seek cover and or report the aircraft. The importance of early identification is demonstrated in the following illustration. AIRCRAFT CONFUSION 2-1. Confusing one aircraft with another is a serious problem that must be dealt with throughout visual aircraft recognition (VACR) training. Reduce the likelihood of confusion by comparing aircraft. The following are the four types of confusion that can occur, of which the first two are the most dangerous: FM 3-01.80 2-1 17 January 2006 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY