June 2004 Short Communications 161 J Raptor Res. 38(2):161-163 © 2004 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc. Unusual Nesting of the Lesser Kestrel {Falco naumanni) in Thessaly, Greece Christos Vlachos,^ Dimitris Bakaloudis, and Evangelos Chatzinikos Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department ofForestry and NaturalEnvironment, Laboratory of Wildlife and FreshwaterF'isheries, P.O. Box 241, 54006 Thessaloniki, Greece Key Words: Lesser Kestrel-, Falco naumanni; breeding suc- ginning of the egg-laying stage. Nests’ contents were cess-, fledglings-, nesting. checked every 15 d to record possible reproductive fail- ures, but in three periods they were checked more fre- The Lesser Kestrel {Falco naumanni) is a small falcon quently: (1) during the beginning ofincubation to assess clutch size; (2) just after hatching to estimate hatching that breeds colonially and nests mainly in walls or roofs success, brood size at hatching, and date ofhatching; and of houses, stables, barns, castles or churches, as well as (3) during fledging to record the number of young in tree holes, earth cliffs, and in rocky outcrops (Cramp fledged (Steenhof 1987). A pair which laid eggs was de- and Simmons 1980). Although the species was consid- fined as a reproductive pair, a successfully-breeding pair ered to be one of the most abundant European birds of was one that fledged at least one young, and breeding prey, it has suffered from a massive population decline success was defined as the percentage of successful ter- in large parts ofits western Palearctic range between the ritorial pairs (Newton 1979, Steenhof 1987). Means ±SE 1960s and 1980s (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Biber are presented in the text and differences (using the 1996), now is of global conservation concern (SPEC 1 M2atnanbl-eWsh)ictonnesyidUe-rteesdtsaingndiftihceanFtiasthear’s=E0x.a0c5t. test for 2 X category), and considered to be vulnerable in Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). The reasons for the dra- Results and Discussion matic decline include the reduction of favorable nesting habitats (restoration and demolition of old buildings), A colony of 18 Lesser Kestrel breeding pairs, in an old and the intensification of agricultural practices (destruc- building in Megalo Monastiri village was recorded in 1998. tion and loss offoraging areas, and the reduction ofprey The next yr, the local municipality demolished the old availability; Donazar et al. 1993, Forero et al. 1996, Telia building and cleared away most of the debris because it et al. 1998). was dangerous for the people living in the area. Early in The trend of the Greek population, which comprises the next breeding season, the same numbers of Lesser ca. 14—15% of the European total, has been similar. In Kestrel pairs were recorded at the location ofthe old build- Greece, the Lesser Kestrel shows a discontinuous distri- ing, as most of adult Lesser Kestrels show high fidelity to bution and now it is mainly concentrated in Thessaly, their breeding colonies (Serrano etal. 2001). We recorded where Hallmann (1996) in a preliminary report recorded a total of eight breeding attempts of Lesser Kestrels nest- 104 colonies and a total of 2679 pairs. ing on the ground, 75% of which were successful. Al- The objectives of the present study were to estimate though ground-nesting behavior had not been observed the breeding success of Lesser Kestrels nesting on the before, the overall breeding success for these Lesser Kes- ground and in a fowl-run with hens and to compare these trels was slightly higher than that recorded for the entire estimates to those of other colonies. population in Megalo Monastiri in 1999 (69.7%, N = 33 pairs), but this difference was not significant (Fisher’s Ex- StudyArea and Methods act test, P = 0.569; Bakaloudis et al. 2000). Megalo Monastiri is a small village at the southeastern There were no significant differences in any reproduc- part of the Larisa plain, central Greece. The village is sit- tive parameter between the colony that nested on the uated on the edge of a hilly terrain, surrounded by grass- ground and the population that nested on the buildings lands and agricultural land, where the dominant crops are cereals and cotton, with small areas of almond trees. The of the village. The mean clutch size was 3.1 ± 0.35 eggs, altitude ranges from 50-120 m above sealevel. The climate similar to the population in the village (3.5 ± 0.22; IS thermo-mediterranean, with a mild rainy winter and a Mann-Whitney Latest, P = 0.288). Eighty-four percent of dry and hot summer. The mean annual precipitation is 25 laid eggs on the ground hatched successfully, resulting mm about 465 concentrated during the winter. in a mean brood size at hatching of 2.6 ± 0.26, which We located and monitored nests from March—Septem- was similar to the mean brood size for the pairs nesting ber 1999, Most (75%) ofthe nests were found during the on buildings (3.1 ± 0.19, N = 26; Mann-Whitney fktest, incubation period, while the rest were found at the be- P = 0.143). Two of four unhatched eggs disappeared about 14 d after the incubation had begun. In both cases ^ E-mail: [email protected] large eggshell fragments were found and we suspect that 162 Short Communications VoL. 38, No. 2 domestic cats {Felis catus) and rats (Rattus rattus) were stage of the nestling period. The fact that Lesser Kestrel responsible for destroying those eggs. The mean brood relies heavily on prey species that inhabit intensively-cul- size at fledging per successful pair was lower in the pairs tivated land, might be a cause of concern for the future. nesting on the ground (2.67 ± 0.33, N — 6) than the We also monitored the breeding success of five pairs N pairs nesting in buildings (3.09 ± 0.2, = 23), but not found nesting in a fowl-run. The mean clutch size was 3.2 significantly so (Mann-Whitney U-test, P = 0.371). The eggs (SE = 1.5), brood size 2.8 young (SE = 1.3), and mean number of young fledged per reproductive pair breeding success 60%. Sixty-nine percent of 16 laid eggs that nested on the ground was 2.00 ± 0.5 {N = 8) and hatched successfully and 91% percent of the hatched eggs did not differ from the mean number of kestrels reared produced fledglings {N = 2) Between one and three hen . by pairs that nested on the buildings (2.15 ± 0.29, N = eggs were also found in each kestrel nest. Also, one nest 33; Mann-Whitney C-test, P = 0.771). Seventy-six percent was found in a plastic barrel with two eggs, but failed to ol 21 hatched eggs on the ground produced fledglings produce young and another one in an oil barrel with two successfully. Most chick mortality (80%) occurred when eggs, which fledged one young successfully. the adults deserted the nests about 20 d after hatching. In conclusion, we suggest that the unusual ground- Although there was indication of the cause of those loss- nesting observed, as well as the nesting in fowl-runs and es, which could be due either to an accident to their in barrels, may be associated with the lack of other suit- parents or to poor parental care, the feathered chicks in able nesting sites (Forero et al. 1996), the relative ab- two broods (pairs D and H) died from starvation. In an- sence of predators (Balfour 1955, Seago 1967, Piechocki other case (pair C), the predated downy chick was found 1982, Village 1990) at this site and by the high fidelity close to the nest with its siblings and had probably been exhibited by adults to their breeding colonies (Serrano killed by a rat. No evidence of cannibalism was observed et al. 2001). in the colony of Lesser Kestrel on the ground, as was — reported by Negro et al. (1992) for other colonies in Resumen. Presentamos informacion sobre 8 nidos de Spain. The proportion of nests failing during incubation Falco naumanni que han hecho nido en el suelo debajo was lower than pairs nesting on the ground than nesting de los restos de un edificio antiguo demolido en Thes- on buildings (58.3%, N = 7). Conversely, broods in nests salia, Grecia Central en 1999. Las variables reproductivas on the ground (25%, N = 3) were more likely to fail than como tamapo de puesta en el momento del vuelo (3.1 those in buildings (16.7%, N = 2; Fisher’s Exact test, P huevos puestos), el tamapo de pollada (2.6 polios) yexito = 0.045). This was due mainly to the higher predation reproductor (2.6 polios) no tienen diferencias importan- pressure during the nestling stage on pairs nesting on tes comparados con los que han sido observados en in- the ground. stalaciones humanas en la misma region de estudio. En In general, breeding parameters of the Lesser Kestrel el 75% de los nidos se ha criado con exito al menos un colony on the ground were similar to that of other pop- polio, con un promedio de 2.0 polios por pareja reprod- ulations, except for clutch size, which was lower than in uctora. Cinco parejas han .sido localizadas en gallineros other studies. Variations in clutch size and breeding suc- usando los mismos nidos de las gallinas y tres de ellos cess were also reported for other Lesser Kestrel popula- criaron polios con exito. Una puesta fue encontrada en tions (Negro and Hiraldo 1993, Telia et al. 1996) and un cubo de plastico y otra en un barril de aceite. may be related to changes in food availability from yr to [Traduccion de los autores] yr or to habitat type (Newton 1979, Negro et al. 1992, ACKNOWI.EDGMENTS Negro and Hiraldo 1993, Telia et al. 1996). The Lesser Kestrel that we studied fed exclusively on insects, mainly We would like to thank E. Vlachou, E. Dafos, V. Bot- crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera), the populations zorlos, T. Papadopoulos, and D. Tsalagas for their assis- We of which fluctuate from yr to yr in the study area. The tance with the fieldwork. are also grateful to the 4th Hunting Federation of Sterea Hellas and Municipal En- low clutch size of Lesser Kestrels that either nested on terprise and Ecotourist Center of Dadia, which have sup- the ground or on the buildings in 1999, suggests that the ported this research financially. We also thank Drs. J.J period of study was a yr of food shortage, compared to Negro, D. Serrano, and an anonymous referee who re- that recorded for the same study area in 2000 (Bakal- viewed and greatly improved this manuscript. oudis et al. 2000). Finally, the percentage of unhatched Literature Cited eggs was low and similar to the results of other studies (Negro et al. 1993), suggesting that the hatching success Balfour, E. 1955. Kestrel nesting on the ground in Ork- either of Lesser Kestrels that nested on ground or on ney. Bird Notes 26:245-253. buildings in Megalo Monastiri village was not negatively Bakaloudis, D., C. Viachos, and E. Chatzinikos. 2000. affected by contamination. However, the widespread use Breeding success in the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanm of pesticides in intensive cultivation could be a possible in Thessaly, central Greece. Conference for Birds of reason for adult deaths or for low feeding rates (i.e., the Prey and Owls, 22-26 November 2000. Mikulov, Czech observed mortality of chicks due to starvation) as these Republic. could affect prey populations negatively during the late Biber, J.P. 1996. International action plan for the Lesser June 2004 Short Communications 163 Kestrel (Falco nauvtanni). Pages 191-203 in B. Here- breeding success in the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni dia, L. Rose, and M. Painter [Eds.], Globally threat- Bird Study 40:115-119. ened birds in Europe. Couneil of Europe Publishing, Newton, 1. 1979. Population ecology ofraptors. T. &A D. Berlin, Germany. Poyser, London, U.K. Cramp, S. and K.E.L. Simmons. 1980. The birds of the PiECHOCKi, R. 1982. Der Turmfalke. Ziemsen-Verlag, Wit- western palearctic. Vol. 2. Hawks to bustards. Oxford tenberg, Germany. Univ. Press, Oxford, U.K. Seago, M.J. 1967. The birds of Norfolk. Jarrold 8c Son, Donazar, J.A., JJ- Negro, and P. Hiraldo. 1993. Forag- Norwich, U.K. ing habitat selection, land-use changes and popula- Serrano, D.,J.L. Telia, M.G. Forero, andJ.A. DonAzar tion decline in the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. / 2001. Factors affecting breeding dispersal in the fac- Applied Ecol. 30:515-522. ultatively colonial Lesser Kestrel: individual experi- Forero, M.G.,J.L. Telia,J.A. Donazar, and F. Hiraldo. ence vs. conspecific cues. J. AnimalEcol. 70:568-578. 1996. Can interspecific competition and nest site Steenhof, K. 1987. Assessing raptor reproductive success m and productivity. Pages 157—170 B.A.G. Pendleton, availability explain the decrease ofLesser KestrelFalco B.A. Millsap, K.W. Cline, and D.M. Bird [Eds.], Rap- naumanni populations? Biol. Conserv. 78:289—293. Hageme^er, W.J.M. and MJ. Biair. 1997. The EBCC At- tor management techniques manual. Nat. Wildl. Fed , Washington, DC U.S.A. las of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T. 8c A.D. Poyser, London, U.K. Telia, J., F. Hiraldo, J. DonAzar, and J. Negro. 1996. Costs and benefits ofurban nesting in the Lesser Kes- Hallmann, B. 1996. Lesser Kestrel survey: Thessaly 1995. trel. Pages 53-60 in D. Bird, D. Varland, and Negro Report to the Hellenic Ornithological Society, Thes- [Eds.], Raptors in human landscapes. AcadeJm.Ji.c Press saloniki, Greece. Ltd., London, U.K. Negro, JJ-, J-A. DonAzar, and F. Hiraldo. 1992. Klep- , M.G. Forero, F. Hiraldo, and J.A. DonAzar toparasitism and cannibalism in a colony of Lesser 1998. Conflicts between Lesser Kestrel conservation Kestrels {Falco naumanni).]. RaptorRes. 26:225-228. and European agricultural policies as identified by , J.A. DonAzar, F. Hiraldo, L. Hernandez, and habitat use analysis. Conserv. Biol. 12:593-604. M. FernAndez. 1993. Organochlorine and heavy met- Village, A. 1990. The kestrel. T. & A.D. Poyser, London, al contamination in non-viable eggs and its relation U.K. to breeding success in a Spanish population ofLesser Kestrels {Falco naumanni). Environ. Pollut. 82:201-205. Received 29 January 2003; accepted 29 December 2003 , and F. Hiraldo. 1993. Nest-site selection and Associate Editor:JuanJose Negro J RaptorRes. 38(2) 163-168 : © 2004 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc. Fat Stores of Migrant Sharp-shinned and Cooper’s Hawks in New Mexico John DeLong^ P. HawkWatch International, Inc., 1800 South West Temple, Suite 226, Salt Lake City, UT 84115 U.S.A. and Department ofBiology, Utah State University, 5305 University Blvd., Logan, UT 84322 U.S.A. Stephen W. Hoffman^ HawkWatch International, Inc., 1800 South West Temple, Suite 226, Salt Lake City, UT 84115 U.S.A. Key Words: Cooper’s Hawk, Accipiter cooperii; Sharp- Birds use stored fats to supply energy during times shinned Hawk; Accipiter striatus; avian energetics; migration; when foraging is limited or not possible (King 1970, fat scores; fat stores. Blem 1980). During migration, stored fat allows birds to make uninterrupted flights between places and times when foraging can occur and fat stores can be replen- 1 Present address: 2314 Hollywood Ave. NW, Albuquer- ished (King 1970, Blem 1980). The amount of fat that NM que, 87104 U.S.A.; e-mail address: jpdelong® birds store during and leading up to migration varies comcast.net widely (Blem 1980). Fat stores ranged from 4% of total ^ Present address: Audubon Pennsylvania, 100 Wildwood body mass in Common Buzzards {Buteo buteo vulpinus) Way, Harrisburg, PA 17110 U.S.A. migrating through Israel (Gorney and Yom-Tov 1994) to