n w The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No o T quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgeement of the source. p The thesis is to be used for private study or non- a C commercial research purposes only. f o Published by the Universit y of Cape Town (UCT) in terms y t of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. i s r e v i n U SUBALTERNITY AND THE NEGOTIATION OF A THEATRE IDENTITY: n PERFORMING THE POSTCOLONY IN ALTERNATIVE ZIMBABWEAN THEATRE w o T e p a C SAMUEL R AVENGAI f o y t i s r e v i n Thesis presented for the degree of U DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PhD) in the Department of Drama Faculty of Humanities UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN November 2011 Subalternity and the Negotiation of a Theatre Identity: Performing the Postcolony in Alternative Zimbabwean Theatre Samuel Ravengai November 2011 ABSTRACT The present study investigates the field of theatre practice that I have chosen to call alternative Zimbabwean theatre through a detailed study of four plays and reference to several others all first performed and written between 1980 and 1996. The study interrogates the interweaving and juxtaposition of divergent performance forms and styles on stage created by the contact between western dramatic theatre, indigenous theatre and n cultural performances. This contact results in the formation of a third space for theatre w which is a creative area of ambivalence, sameness, difference, conflict, struggle, mocking o and celebration. The study specifically scrutinises this interseTcting area as it obtains in alternative theatre and examines the forces at work in producing the nature and identity of e syncretic theatre. Between 1980 and 1996, the naturep and identity of alternative theatre a changed significantly. This thesis investigates these changes, movements, shifts, conflicts C and appropriations and the context within whi ch they took place. f o y My overarching argument is that thet identity of alternative Zimbabwean theatre is traceable i s to its response to a specific version of colonial discourse which I call Rhodesian discourse r e and specific aesthetic approaches that African theatre makers in their quest for v decolonisation of theaitre consciously chose such as socialist realism, Afrocentrism and n U indigenous cultural texts. The study reaches back to the beginning of colonialism in 1890 to trace the resistance and affirmation of dramatic theatre in such cultural productions as tea parties, beni, nyawo dance, liberation war performances (pungwes) as well as theatrical texts. Since Zimbabwean alternative theatrical texts do not slavishly adhere to the dictates of dramatic theatre, the work notes the inadequacy of conventional and monocultural dramaturgical analytical strategies and deeply entrenched understandings of the theory/practice nexus for analysing alternative theatre. In this regard the study analyses performances through the lens of postcolonial theory. Postcolonial criticism seeks to explain the interconnection of race, empire and dominated groups with cultural production. I deploy postcolonial theory to find out how Africans’ interactions with western cultural forms i impacted on the identity of alternative Zimbabwean theatre. Methodologically, I apply a combination of contextual reconstruction of performances and socio‐semiotics. In contextual reconstruction the performance text is placed in a position where it is the site of centrifugal movement toward other external texts. This pragmatic approach involves co‐ textual and contextual analyses. In the first instance a performance text is analysed to yield its internal regularities such as dance, mime, music and other materials of production. In the latter I establish a relationship between the internal regularities of the performance text and its external aspects. External texts include other performances of the same period, and the cultural text, that is, the context of performance such as the theatrical convention of the period, circumstances of enunciation and reception, aesthetic performance and non‐ aesthetic performance codes and how these influence and produce nthe moment of w enunciation. The analysis of reconstructed performances is done according to a model that I o have called cultural system model. In this model, the analysis is not exclusively on the end T product; theatre identity and meaning is a product of a di stillation of three processes – e theatre production, theatre performance and theatre recpeption. a C This study hopes to contribute to the ad vancement of knowledge of theatre and f o performance in Zimbabwe by studying theatre as a corporeal and spatial discourse that uses y bodies moving in space as its primary mode of signification and taking an intertextual t i s approach to analysis through the lens of postcolonial theory. This thesis concludes by r accounting for the decline oef socialist revolutionary theatre after 1996 and delineating the v emerging identities of that theatre. i n U ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First things first. I give thanks to Him who is able to do immeasurably more than we ask or imagine. In everything He must have supremacy. I can do everything through Him who gives me strength. Special thanks to my supervisors Associate Professors Gay Morris (PhD) and Harry Garuba (PhD) for their unwavering support throughout the duration of the study. Harry Garuba has a gift of seeing the end before one gets there. He pointed to me the important landmarks to follow to the end and I got there confidently. Gay Morris has a gift of reading between the lines and ferreting inconsistencies and slippages. She pointed these, wherne they existed, to w me in her usual theatrical style. Thanks to both of you. A special thank you to Liz Mills who o read my proposal and supervised the very first draft of the first three chapters before taking T early retirement at the end of 2009. She was both a supervisor and a mother full of the milk e of human kindness. p a C I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the following sponsors: f University of Cape Town Postgraduate Founding Office for awarding me the following bursaries: UCT International Scholarship (2009‐11), UCT Doctoral Scholarship (2010), UCT y t Research Associateship (2010). Tihe UCT Drama Department and Geoffrey Hyland for s awarding me the following burrsaries: Rosalie Van der Gucht (2009, 2011), Victoria League e English Speech (2010) anvd Canon Collins Trust for the award of Ros Moger/Terry Furlong i scholarship (2010‐11)n. U Within the UCT Drama Department I extend my thanks to Lindsay Redman for all postgraduate administrative issues and Rob Keith for facilitating all my international conference travels, which have been a primary source of intellectual stimulation. Thanks to Associate Professor Mark Fleishman for giving me a working space in the Rosedale precinct and employing me to deliver lectures to drama students. Thanks to the staff of Hiddingh Hall Library. They know everybody by name. Peter Vries knows where each book is located and will show it to a researcher without searching. Solvej Vorster, Annette Roup, Marlene Adonis, Kashiefa Shade, Raphael Kasigwa and Richenda Phillips, you were great! iii Thanks to my colleagues at the University of Zimbabwe Theatre Arts Department; Owen Seda (now with the University of Botswana), Nehemiah Chivandikwa and Kelvin Chikonzo who never stopped inspiring me with their research even when the Zimbabwean crisis could have easily de‐focused us. Thanks to Dr Praise Zenenga, (now with the University of Arizona) for being a role model. I do appreciate the forbearance of my lovely daughters Munenyasha and Kudzoyashe who withstood long hours of my absence from home while working on this thesis. My mother is the greatest source of inspiration because I want to make her happy and proud by succeeding in whatever I do. Finally, a sincere thanks to my loving wife Kundai for bringing sanity to my mind when the whole project seemed maddening. She doesn’t stop rending the heavens so we can do everything through Him who gives us strength! n w o T e p a C f o y t i s r e v i n U iv ABBREVIATIONS A Level Advanced Level AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome AIPPA Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (2002) ARTS Association of Rhodesian Theatrical Societies (started off as Southern Rhodesia Drama Association in 1957) BADG Bulawayo Association of Drama Groups BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BSAC British South Africa Company CABS Central Africa Building Society n CCJP Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace w CBT Community Based Theatre o CIO Central Intelligence Organisation T DRC Democratic Republic of Congo e ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment pProgramme a FTLCA Federal Theatre League of Central Africa (formed in 1958 and lapsed C in 1963 at the end of th e Federation to be renamed ARTS) f o HIV Human Immuno‐deficiency Virus y ICU Industrial and Commercial Workers Union t i IMF Internatiosnal Monetary Fund r LMS Londeon Missionary Society v LRF Legal Resources Foundation i n LOMA Law and Order Maintenance Act U MDC Movement for Democratic Change MP Member of Parliament NACZ National Arts Council of Zimbabwe NAD Native Affairs Department NAF National Arts Foundation (renamed National Arts Council of Zimbabwe in 1987 NAM Non‐Aligned Movement NGO Non Governmental Organisation NMDDF National Music, Dance and Drama Festival NHSTF National High Schools Theatre Festival NRDA Northern Rhodesia Dramatic Association (joined with SRDA in 1958 to form Federal Theatre League of Central Africa) v NTF National Theatre Festival [was rebranded to Winter Festival (Winterfest) in the late 1980s] NTO National Theatre Organisation (ARTS rebranded itself NTO in 1977) OAU Organisation of African Unity (now AU‐African Union) O level Ordinary Level POSA Public Order and Security Act (2002) (PF) ZAPU (Patriotic Front) Zimbabwe African People’s Union RADA Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts RF Rhodesian Front SADC Southern Africa Development Community SIDA Swedish International Development Agency n w SRDA Southern Rhodesia Dramatic Association (formed 1957) o SRMS Southern Rhodesia Missionary Society T TfD Theatre for Development e TTL Tribal Trust Land p a UK United Kingdom C UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation f USA United States of Amoerica UZ University of Ziymbabwe t UZAMDRAMS University iof Zambia Dramatic Society s WB Worldr Bank e ZACT Zivmbabwe Association of Community‐based Theatre i ZANLA nZimbabwe African National Liberation Army U ZANU (PF) Zimbabwe African National Union (Patriotic Front) ZAP Zimbabwe Arts Productions ZBC TV Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation Television ZIBF Zimbabwe International Book Fair ZIMFEP Zimbabwe Foundation for Education with Production ZIPRA Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army ZPH Zimbabwe Publishing House ZWRCN Zimbabwe Women’s Resource Centre and Network vi GLOSSARY OF TERMS African There are a number of types of Africans. There are continental Africans – Arabs and Africans born and bred in Africa including adjacent islands whom Ali Mazrui calls ‘Africa’s children of the soil’ (cited in Shaka, 2004: 23). There are Africans who are phenotypically black – Sub‐ Saharan blacks whom Ali Mazrui calls ‘Africa’s children of the blood’ (ibid). There is a third category of Africans – European Africans, which constitutes whites born and living in Africa and some of them even claim Afrikaner (African) as their ethnic identity. In this research, I use the term African to refer to the second category of Africans – blacks, and I am in no way denying anyone the right to being an African. This is also the sense ‘African’ was used by Rhodesians to refer to blacks. Sometimes they used the colloquial term ‘Afs’ for the same purpose. n w Dramatic text o T The unperformed version of a text which is variously called dramatic text, play text, literary text, published text, written complex, written text, language text and a priori metatext. Not e all texts that produce theatre can be called ‘drama’. ‘Drapma’ is a western bourgeois concept to describe a specially written text that has a hisatorical and generic form. This text is structured around the Aristotelian notions of dramCa characterised by hamartia, peripeteia, anagnorisis and catastrophe which ultimately p roduce catharsis in the audience (Boal 1979). f This structure corresponds to the well‐moade‐play structure characterised by exposition, rising action, climax and denouement w hich structure contains the linear plot/story/action. y Richard Schechner (1988) draws foutr concentric circles to represent the differences between i a dramatic text and theatrical‐pesrformance texts. Schechner calls the inner circle ‘drama’ r which he argues is the domain of the playwright, the composer and scenarist. The dramatic e text has a material existevnce as a written text, score, scenario, instruction, plan or map and can move from place tio place independent of actors (1988: 72). This model by Schechner n corresponds to anUother illustration by Temple Hauptfleisch who draws a quarter of a pie chart and divides it into five rows, the inner two representing ‘serious’ and ‘legitimate’ theatre1 while the rest of the rows represent other forms of theatre which are not drama (as it is understood in the West) such as popular entertainment and indigenous performances (Hauptfleisch 1997: 30). Augusto Boal (1979) however argues that the Aristotelian structure varies in multitudinous ways and not all its elements may be found in any given dramatic play, but the effect of purging antisocial elements are nonetheless intrinsic to all dramatic texts. Boal asserts that the Aristotelian system appears disguised in television, movies, circus and even such plays originally designated as illegitimate theatre. Dramatic text is therefore broad enough to include the written text of Shakespeare, Greco‐Roman classics, 1 Legitimate/serious theatre was a category created by the British Licensing/Theatrical Licensing Act of 1737 which restricted spoken drama, usually Shakespeare, Greek and Roman classics to two patent theatres. Other performances called ‘illegitimate’ theatre such as comedy, interludes, pantomime, melodrama, opera, farce and other entertainments were to be performed in non patented theatres (Raithby 1811. Ed. 266‐8) vii naturalist/realist plays, comedy, musicals, opera, operetta and singspiel. The dramatic text is to be distinguished from a theatrical text (see definition) which doesn’t necessarily follow the generic Aristotelian format. Dramatic Theatre: Dramatic theatre is the enunciation of the dramatic text usually by ‘method’ trained or influenced actors. In this case the theatre simply illustrates dramatic literature or in other words the theatre is a realisation of the dramatic text as it is defined in this study. Dramatic theatre relies mainly on mimesis through actors imitating human speech and natural movements and supported by a created space/set which imitates or suggests nature or created things. For this reason Jerzy Grotowski (1968) describes dramatic theatre as a synthesis of disparate creative disciplines such as dramatic literature, sculpture, painting, architecture, lighting and acting. He calls it ‘synthetic theatre’ or ‘Rich Theatre’ (1968: 19) which he criticises in favour of his ‘poor theatre’. Because it was a thenatre and is still a theatre practised by the western bourgeois class, Fischer‐Lichte calls it w‘Bourgeois Illusionist Theatre’ (1992: 193). It tries to create an illusion of reality. Peter Brook (1968) calls it ‘Deadly o Theatre’, not because it is dead theatre, but because of its puTrgative qualities which take away the power from the audience to act (Brook 1968, Bo al 1979). Augusto Boal calls it e Aristotelian theatre for the reason that it recruits Aristotle’s elements of drama for its p realisation. Bertolt Brecht (1957: 37) gives it the same term as the one I use – ‘dramatic a theatre’ – and gives it seventeen characteristics which he contrasts with his preferred ‘Epic C Theatre’. In this study I use western theatre, western bourgeois illusionistic theatre and dramatic theatre interchangeably for stylistfic reasons in appropriate circumstances. Even o though dramatic theatre has been chal lenged in the West by the avant‐garde, modernist, y postmodernist and post‐dramatic theatre, it is still the dominant form (Sauter 2006: 68, t Schechner 1988: 73, Balme 2008: 1i25). That is why I use the term western dramatic theatre s without the risk of ambiguity. r e v Eurocentrism/Eurocentric i n The term Eurocentrism is used in this study to refer to a form of dramatic and critical U practice which privileges aesthetic values of the western bourgeoisie. Scholars of the Eurocentric practice universalise these dramaturgical canons and become unsympathetic to difference. This practice forces cultural heterogeneity into a single paradigmatic perspective which privileges serious/legitimate theatre as the standard theatre and Europe as the source of meaning. According to Chinweizu et al Eurocentrism assumes that ‘an African work must conform to rules and criteria developed within the European tradition. If it does not, it is claimed to be problematic’ (1980: 17). This critical practice is naturalised as common sense. If scholars were raised within its tradition, Eurocentrism becomes embedded in their everyday lives and forms unconscious choices they make about what to admire or disparage. Thus some African scholars are Eurocentric even if they don’t originate from Europe. Likewise some European scholars (and the number is increasing everyday) are not Eurocentric even if they originate from Europe or the West. Eurocentrism is not a conscious political stance, but an implicit positioning. Ella Shohat and Robert Stam eloquently describe Eurocentrism: viii
Description: