ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACTS OF DRINKING WATER INFRASTRUCTURE ON WATER QUALITY IN ALABAMA’S BLACK BELT by RICHARD WARREN FOREHAND PAULINE JOHNSON, COMMITTEE CHAIR JOE BROWN MARK ELLIOTT A THESIS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering in the Graduate School of The University of Alabama TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA 2013 Copyright Richard Warren Forehand 2013 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT Research has suggested that residents of Alabama’s Black Belt are at elevated risk of waterborne disease due to a problem with failing septic tanks in the area. At the same time, cities and towns across the nation are realizing the dire need for replacing and rehabilitating America’s declining water infrastructure to protect public health. An EPA-STAR project is being conducted in three Black Belt counties to further assess the situation and help local water utilities combat the increased risk of contamination. Water loss, low pressure, low chlorine, high residence time, and presence of total coliforms were used as indicators to assess which service areas of one Black Belt system were most likely vulnerable to contamination. Collected data from 195 households within the system and simulated data from an EPANET model of the system were used for the analysis. The results identified the regions with the highest prevalence of these indicators and suggested further system level sampling to evaluate if the problem is more associated with system water mains or households. ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my friends, my family, and my Savior through whom I find purpose. iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ADEM Alabama Department of Environmental Management ADPH Alabama Department of Public Health ANOVA Analysis of Variance ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers AWWA American Water Works Association Chlorine initial concentration CDC Center for Disease Control CWSRF Clean Water State Revolving Fund DBP Disinfection by-product DWINS Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey DWMOR Drinking Water Monthly Operating Report DWSRF Drinking Water State Revolving Fund EPA Environmental Protection Agency Gal Gallon GPM Gallons per Minute iv h Hour HAA5 Haloacetic acid HCGI Highly Credible Gastrointestinal Illness IWA International Water Association Chlorine bulk reaction coefficient Chlorine wall reaction coefficient L Liters MCL Maximum Contaminant Level mg Milligrams MGD Million Gallons per Day MOR Monthly Operating Report NAS National Academy of Sciences NPDWR National Primary Drinking Water Regulations NRC National Research Council NSF National Science Foundation NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit psi Pounds per square inch v PVC Polyvinyl chloride SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act STAR Science to Achieve Results TCR Total Coliform Rule TOC Total Organic Carbon TTHM Trihalomethane WHO World Health Organization vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am forever indebted to the many colleagues, friends, and faculty who made this project possible, and I am very pleased to have this opportunity to thank those people. Words can hardly begin to express how grateful I am to have been guided through the field of research by my advisor, committee chair, and friend, Dr. Pauline Johnson. Her patience, passion, and perception comforted me when I did not know where to go with my research. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Joe Brown, Dr. Mark Elliott, and Dr. Christine Stauber, for their exemplary leadership, priceless input, and confident support throughout this project. I would like to also thank Dr. Julie Olson for helping me grasp basic concepts of microbiology and providing brilliant insight to my work. Many thanks are due to the diverse team of student researchers at the University of Alabama, but I would especially like to thank J.J. Wedgworth for her friendship, leadership, and dedication to this team and project. I am indebted to managers and operators of the utilities in the study area for their insight and help with my hydraulic model. I would also like to thank the operators of the utilities in our study area for helping me learn about the drinking water industry. I thank all of the people in Hale, Sumter, and Wilcox counties who participated in our research study. To my girlfriend and best friend, Alison Owen, thank you for sharing your life with mine and providing the best memories I have ever known. To my big sister, Rachel Forehand, thank you for traversing this life a little before me and exemplifying the heart of Jesus to me and countless others. To my parents, Charles and Brenda Forehand, thank you for pouring out your vii lives into raising me and providing the basis for any good, valuable knowledge that I have learned in this life. To my grandparents, while most of you have gone on before me, the hours spent with you live within my heart and show me the meaning of unconditional love. I could not have done this without any of you. This research was made possible by the National Science Foundation and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. viii CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS .......................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................ vii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xvi 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Context .................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research Purpose .................................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Research Objectives .............................................................................................................. 5 2. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................ 7 2.1 Water Infrastructure in the United States .............................................................................. 7 2.1.1 Historical Development ................................................................................................. 7 2.1.2 Challenges to Small, Rural Systems ............................................................................ 10 2.1.3 SDWA Violations ........................................................................................................ 13 2.2 Alabama’s Black Belt ......................................................................................................... 14 xi