TURKISH: A COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR Routledge Comprehensive Grammars Comprehensive Grammars are available for the following languages: Modern Written Arabic Cantonese Catalan Chinese Danish Dutch Greek Indonesian Japanese Slovene Swedish Turkish Ukrainian Modern Welsh Titles of related interest Colloquial Turkish: A Complete Course for Beginners Jeroen Aarssen and Ad Backus Dictionary of the Turkic Languages Kurtuluş Öztopçu, Zhoumagaly Abuov, Nasir Kambarov and Youssef Azemoun TURKISH: A COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR Aslı Göksel and Celia Kerslake LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 2005 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/.” © 2005 Aslı Göksel and Celia Kerslake All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data has been applied for ISBN 0-203-34076-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-11494-2 (pbk) ISBN 0-415-21761-X (hbk) CONTENTS Acknowledgements vii Introduction viii Abbreviations xvii List of conventions observed in this book xx The Turkish alphabet and writing conventions xxii 1 Part 1 Phonology: the sound system 1 Phonological units 3 2 Sound changes produced in the stem by suffixation 14 3 Vowel harmony 21 4 Word stress 26 5 Intonation and sentence stress 35 41 Part 2 Morphology: the structure of words 6 Principles of suffixation 43 7 Word classes, derivation and derivational suffixes 49 8 Inflectional suffixes 65 9 Reduplication 90 10 Noun compounds 94 11 Clitics 100 107 Part 3 Syntax: the structure of sentences 12 Simple and complex sentences 109 13 The verb phrase 126 14 The noun phrase 144 15 Adjectival constructions, determiners and numerals 170 16 Adverbial constructions 189 17 Postpositional phrases 214 18 Pronouns 230 19 Questions 251 20 Negation 271 21 Tense, aspect and modality 283 22 Definiteness, specificity and generic reference 322 23 Word order 337 24 Noun clauses 351 25 Relative clauses 380 26 Adverbial clauses 399 27 Conditional sentences 419 28 Conjunctions, co-ordination and discourse connection 438 Appendix 1 Reduplicated stems 462 Appendix 2 Tense/aspect/modality suffixes 465 Glossary of grammatical terms 470 Bibliography 480 Index 484 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The present book would not have been in the form it is had it not been for the generous feedback of the following colleagues, friends and students, linguists and teachers and users of Turkish, who read and commented on parts of the manuscript: Didar Akar, Öznur Ayman, Ercan Balcı, Cem Çakır, Georgia Catsimali, Monik Charette, Ruth Christie, Ann Denwood, Dilek Elçin, Eser Erguvanlı-Taylan, Kate Fleet, Jorge Hankamer, Katerina Hardiman, Atakan İnce, Meltem Kelepir, Elisabeth Kendall, Wilfried Meyer-Viol, Mine Nakipoğlu-Demiralp and A.Sumru Özsoy. We are grateful to all these people for sparing the time to help us in this way. We owe special thanks to Ceyda Arslan for reading the whole manuscript meticulously. Her detailed and insightful corrections helped us avoid many errors. Dimitris Antoniou and Andras Riedlmayer provided valuable help in pointing us to some of the statistics about Turkish speakers outside Turkey, and Mehmet Ölmez, Şükriye Ruhi and Güneş Müftüoğlu kindly responded to our questions about reference grammars in current use for teaching purposes in Turkey. We are indebted to Meltem Kelepir, Zeynep Kulelioğlu, Mine Nakipoğlu-Demiralp, Gülen Ergin and Müfide Pekin for their readiness to give us their acceptability judgements on problematic constructions, and to Onat Işık for his technical help in transferring several files from one computer system to another. We are also grateful to our students at Boğaziçi and Oxford Universities, who (whether they were aware of it or not) constantly brought to our attention aspects of Turkish that we might not otherwise have thought about. Gratitude is due to our successive editors at Routledge, Simon Bell, Sophie Oliver, Sarah Butler, Liz O’Donnell and Ruth Jeavons for their feedback and patience throughout the years, and to several anonymous reviewers for their comments. During the preparation of this book we have drawn heavily on the work of others, some of it unpublished. Unfortunately the format of this book does not allow us to acknowledge our sources at the appropriate points in the text. We hope that this will not give the impression that all the observations and descriptions presented in the book belong originally to us, and that we will be forgiven for having to content ourselves with simply including our sources in the bibliography. Needless to say, responsibility for any shortcomings that this book may have rests entirely with ourselves. Finally, we should like to thank our closest friends and our families for their unfailing support in what has been a prolonged and often too absorbing task. Aslı Göksel Celia Kerslake July 2004 INTRODUCTION TURKISH AND ITS SPEAKERS Turkish belongs to the Turkic family of languages, which have been spoken for many centuries across a vast territory from the Balkans to China. Within this family, which includes such languages as Uighur, Uzbek, Tatar and Kazakh, Turkish forms part of the southwestern or Oghuz branch. Its closest relatives are Gagauz (spoken by less than 200,000 people of Orthodox Christian religion, mostly in southern Moldova), Azerbaijanian (spoken by up to 20 million people in Iran and Azerbaijan) and Turkmen (spoken by some 3 million people in Turkmenistan and by about 400,000 in Iraq). Turkish itself is spoken predominantly in the Republic of Turkey, of which it is the official language. No statistics are available as to how many of Turkey’s population of 70 million have Turkish as their first language. Most of the ethnic minorities have undergone considerable (in some cases, total) linguistic assimilation. In the largest ethnic minority, that of the Kurds (which is variously estimated to make up between 8 per cent and 20 per cent of the country’s population), a large number of people are bilingual. A reasonable estimate would probably be that Turkish is now the first language of 55–60 million of Turkey’s citizens, with another few million people speaking it with equal fluency to their native language. Turkish speakers outside Turkey fall into two groups. The first consists of communities located in various lands that were formerly, for several centuries, part of the Ottoman Empire. There are populations of this kind in Bulgaria (760,000), Greece (115,000), Macedonia (80,000) and Romania (23,000). Cyprus, also former Ottoman territory, has seen its Turkish-speaking population considerably enlarged by migration from Turkey since 1974. There may be as many as 150,000–200,000 Turkish speakers living in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus at the time of writing. The second group of Turkish speakers outside Turkey comprises those who, since the 1960s, have taken up residence in various western European countries, Australia and North America. The number in western Europe is nearly 4 million, of whom half live in Germany. The Australian Turkish community numbers some 40,000, and the number of Turkish speakers in North America is 50,000–60,000. Although in all these migrant communities there is a tendency for the use of Turkish to decline with each succeeding generation, it can probably be stated with reasonable certainty that Turkish is spoken as a first language or with native fluency by about 65 million people worldwide. BREAK WITH THE OTTOMAN PAST The Turkish language underwent two kinds of radical change as part of the revolutionary reform programme launched by Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) after the establishment of the Republic in 1923. The first was a sudden and comprehensive change in the medium in which it was written, with the introduction of a specially adapted form of the Latin alphabet in 1928, accompanied by a total prohibition on any further use of the Arabic script for teaching or publication in Turkish. The second affected the substance of the language itself, particularly its lexicon, and comprised a systematic campaign, launched by the official Turkish Language Foundation in 1932, to ‘liberate’ Turkish from its ‘subjugation’ to other languages, i.e. to Arabic and Persian. In order to give some indication of the significance of this change it will be necessary to say something about the Ottoman form of Turkish, the precursor of the modern language. As a linguistic term, ‘Ottoman’ denotes the form of Turkic which became the official and literary language of the Ottoman Empire (1300–1922). This was, essentially, the variety of Oghuz Turkic which developed in Anatolia after that region was settled by Oghuz Turks in the eleventh to thirteenth centuries. It was written in the Arabic script, the form of writing adopted not only by the Oghuz but by all the Turkic-speaking peoples who, from about the tenth century onwards, had accepted the Islamic faith. The primacy accorded in Islam to the Arabic language itself, the language of the Qur’an, had a profound impact on the intellectual life of Ottoman society. The language of scholarship and of Islamic law, and the medium of instruction in the only schools available to the Muslim population before the nineteenth century, the medreses, was Arabic. In literature, on the other hand, the influence that was more directly felt was that of Persian, since it was the aesthetics of Persian poetry and ornate prose that provided inspiration for the Ottoman literati. A truly cultured Ottoman was expected to have a fluent command of ‘the three languages’, and many Turkish-speaking Ottomans did indeed write treatises in Arabic and/or poetry in Persian. As far as Ottoman itself was concerned, the degree to which written texts reflected the spoken idiom varied greatly according to the level of education of the writer and the purpose and intended readership of the document. In any kind of sophisticated writing the Turkish structural base became all but submerged, surfacing mainly in the inflectional morphology and in other non-lexical items such as pronouns, determiners, and auxiliary verbs. Arabic and Persian borrowings were not confined to the lexicon, but included grammatical elements also. Arabic words were often used in their distinctive plural forms, and adjectives were made to agree with them in terms of gender, as they would in Arabic itself. A host of Arabic prepositional phrases, completely alien to Turkish syntax, were imported more or less as lexical units. A number of Persian constructions became particularly prevalent. One was the ubiquitous izafet, by which the head of a noun phrase was linked to the modifying noun or adjective that followed it (as in asakir-i Islam ‘armies of Islam’ or memalik-i Osmaniye ‘Ottoman dominions’). Another was the compound adjective, used mainly for ornamental or rhetorical reasons, and often designed to rhyme with its head noun (as in padişah-ı alem-penah, ‘world-sheltering monarch’ or vezir-i Asaf-tedbir ‘vizier wise as Asaf’). It should be noted that the majority of these imported elements were totally absent from the language of the unschooled