Journal of Religion & Film Volume 16 Article 3 Issue 2October 2012 10-1-2012 The Reenchantment of Eschatology: Religious Secular Apocalypse in Akira Kurosawa’s Dreams Justin Heinzekehr Claremont Lincoln University, [email protected] Recommended Citation Heinzekehr, Justin (2012) "The Reenchantment of Eschatology: Religious Secular Apocalypse in Akira Kurosawa’s Dreams,"Journal of Religion & Film: Vol. 16 : Iss. 2 , Article 3. Available at: https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol16/iss2/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Religion & Film by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@UNO. For more information, please [email protected]. The Reenchantment of Eschatology: Religious Secular Apocalypse in Akira Kurosawa’s Dreams Abstract The possibility of nuclear destruction in the modern world has created a secular eschatology which, unlike religious eschatologies, creates nihilism and apathy rather than ultimate meaning. The Japanese filmDreams, by Akira Kurosawa, depicts this secularized eschatology as well as a counter-apocalyptic utopia. However, Kurosawa does not merely repeat the Western visions of nuclear apocalypse, but uses Japanese folk religion as a lens through which this apocalypse can be viewed. By doing so, Kurosawa creates a specifically Eastern response to nuclear destruction: a “religious secular” eschatology. Despite its lack of critical success,Dreams provides a valuable alternative for Western theologians in a nuclear age. Keywords Kurosawa, eschatology, apocalypse, Dreams, nuclear disaster, secularism Author Notes Justin Heinzekehr is a PhD student in the Process Studies program at Claremont Lincoln University, a division of Claremont School of Theology. His research interests include process theology, Anabaptist theology and ethics, and peace theology. This article is available in Journal of Religion & Film:https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol16/iss2/3 Heinzekehr: The Reenchantment of Eschatology With the invention of nuclear weapons, human society has pushed its power of destruction to an apocalyptic level. The end of the world, which used to serve only as a localized or mythological trope, can now be discussed as a real, even inevitable, fate for the planet as a whole. The possibility of apocalypse from a purely materialist, realist, or scientific standpoint poses a challenge to religious eschatologies, which, especially in the West, grant God absolute power over the future. If humans have the ability to wipe out life itself, eschatology can be framed in a secular way – i.e., without recourse to any divinely ordained destruction. Of course, nuclear war may also have a place in religious eschatologies, which often envision it as one step in the process towards God’s ultimate victory over the forces of evil.1 However, the prospect of nuclear war uniquely lends itself to a vision of a purely human-caused apocalypse. In the West, then, apocalyptic themes can generally be placed in two categories: the religious and the secular. As Conrad Ostwalt says in his analysis of the apocalyptic in film, “Secular apocalypses generally differ from traditional ones in the exclusion of the supernatural as a means of agency for the end of time…What normally occurs in these disaster films is that humankind replaces God in the apocalyptic drama in that humanity becomes responsible either for the destruction of the earth or the salvation of it or both.”2 While religious eschatologies imagine an ultimate purpose behind global destruction, the secularization of eschatology generally manifests itself in absurdism. As Daniel Wojcik says, “Ideas about the unalterable destruction of the world, when lacking the mythic component of worldly renewal and the belief in divine control, ultimately may be expressed as a form of nihilistic fatalism.”3 The secularization of apocalypse therefore results in widespread feelings of apathy and futility.4 As many scholars have pointed out, however, the dichotomy between secular and sacred is a product of Western civilization and is not universally applicable. For most of human history, religious and secular spheres have historically been intertwined, making impossible any sharp Published by DigitalCommons@UNO, 2012 1 Journal of Religion & Film, Vol. 16 [2012], Iss. 2, Art. 3 distinction between the two. According to William Cavanaugh, the dichotomy between religion and secularity was a function of the rise of the modern nation-state in 15th to 17th-century Western Europe. The invention of religion was bound up with changing configurations of power and contributed to the new dominance of colonial powers. “Specifically, the concept of religion justifies the liberal state’s self-presentation as an apparatus concerned with the wholly negative function of preventing the incursion of substantive, collective ends into the public sphere.”5 We should expect, therefore, that Ostwalt’s distinction between traditional and secular apocalypse might not translate well to non-Western film. Furthermore, eschatology itself is foreign to many religious worldviews. As Norman Cohn says, the idea of a final consummation of time only appeared with Zoroastrianism around the 6th century BCE.6 From there, the idea was adopted into Judaism, Christianity and Islam. However, most Eastern worldviews maintain a cyclical view of time in which there is no hope for a final end of the world itself. In particular, Shintoism has traditionally done without any form of eschatology whatsoever. As Stuart Picken says, “[S]ince Shinto is concerned with development and stages of growth, it really views death as simply a stage in a longer process. Certainly there is no kind of Shinto eschatology, and little about life after death in the Western sense in which this is conceived. Later concepts, such as the idea of the Pure Land, belong entirely to Buddhism.”7 Despite the foreignness of apocalypse, especially secular apocalypse, to the Eastern worldview, the recent “secularization” of apocalyptic possibility has been foisted onto Japanese society. As the only country as yet to sustain a nuclear attack, Japan has had to wrestle even more than others with the implications of nuclear destruction. 8 Akira Kurosawa, Japan’s best- known film director, produced several films that explored the psychological effect of the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These films are not necessarily apocalyptic, since they deal https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol16/iss2/3 2 Heinzekehr: The Reenchantment of Eschatology only with the historical, localized destruction of American atomic bombs in World War II. However, towards the end of his life, Kurosawa directed a film called Dreams,9 which explores explicitly apocalyptic and counter-apocalyptic futures. Given his Japanese context, Kurosawa’s treatment of eschatology provides an interesting specimen of eschatology framed in an Eastern context. I argue here that apocalypse in Kurosawa’s Dreams cannot be neatly categorized within the usual Western framework. The difference lies in Kurosawa’s juxtaposition of secular and religious apocalyptic themes. While on the surface, his visions appear to exist in a materialist or realist paradigm, Kurosawa’s depiction of eschatological possibilities must in fact be understood through a religious or mythological lens, specifically that of Japanese folk religion. While modern technology has moved eschatology from the mythological to the secular, Kurosawa’s film takes us in the opposite direction, remythologizing the secular. In doing so, Kurosawa’s counter- apocalyptic vision provides an alternative to either the hopelessness of materialistic apocalypse or the yearning for supernatural intervention that characterizes religious apocalypse. Rather than mimicking either of these two Western forms of eschatology, Dreams is a uniquely Eastern apocalyptic film that blurs the distinction between the religious and the secular. Dreams is one of Kurosawa’s lesser known films, receiving only lukewarm critical review. Compared to his other films, Dreams is accused of being simplistic, didactic and self- conscious.10 Certainly Record of a Living Being (1955) or Rhapsody in August (1991) provide more nuanced and interesting explorations of post-nuclear Japanese society. However, the apocalyptic elements of Dreams do provide a unique window into Kurosawa’s vision for society, a prescriptive rather than descriptive take on post-nuclear Japan. The very characteristics that make the film almost unworthy of Kurosawa also make it interesting in terms of eschatology. Despite its didactic tone, Dreams, out of all of Kurosawa’s films, makes most obvious the Published by DigitalCommons@UNO, 2012 3 Journal of Religion & Film, Vol. 16 [2012], Iss. 2, Art. 3 contemporary yearning for a counter-apocalyptic future in the face of nuclear apocalypse. Moreover, Kurosawa succeeds in expressing this desire in a way that defies Western tendencies to separate “religion” from the public sphere. The film is made up of eight short segments, each ostensibly based on an actual dream of the director. Of these eight segments, the last three pertain to the future of society. The first of these, “Mt. Fuji in Red,” begins with the explosion of nuclear reactors at the base of Mt. Fuji. There is chaos in the streets, and a short dialogue between “I” (the character representing Kurosawa), a businessman and a mother with a child. The film cuts to a scene on the coast, where most of the Japanese crowd has already leapt into the sea. Presumably all these people have drowned, but even if they were to survive the leap, the businessman explains, there would be no chance of survival. The nuclear fallout will expand too far even for dolphins to escape its effects. As the four of them stand on the edge of the cliff, clouds of nuclear material waft over them, bringing with it slow and certain death. The woman expresses a deep sense of betrayal (“They told us it was safe!”) and the businessman acknowledges his guilt and responsibility for the existence of the reactors. Aware of the absurdity of his action, the businessman too jumps off the cliff. The segment ends with “I” and the woman hopelessly exposed to the radiation around them. The next segment, “The Demon,” is set in a post-apocalyptic Japan. “I” is walking over barren mountains of ash and comes across a man horribly disfigured by the fallout of nuclear missiles. The “demon” explains the irreversible damage done to this world. Humans have all grown strange horns on their heads that cause them excruciating pain. Even the few plants that grow here are crazy – there are giant dandelions and roses that have stems growing out of their petals. In such a world, the demons can only survive through cannibalism. Death itself is seen as a release from the unending misery of existence. Looking over the mountain, the demon shows https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol16/iss2/3 4 Heinzekehr: The Reenchantment of Eschatology “I” a scene of Dantesque horror. Groups of demons writhe in pain around blood-red pools of toxic waste. Finally, the demon turns to threaten “I,” who runs and stumbles down the mountain of ash. The last segment of the film, “Village of the Watermills,” counters these apocalyptic images with an idyllic village scene filmed on a wasabi farm in Nagano. “I” wanders up to the village and sees a group of children sprinkling flowers on a rock by a river. He notices an old man repairing a waterwheel, and asks him why the children did this. He explains that a stranger was once found dead on that spot many generations ago. The villagers took pity and buried him there, and it is now a tradition to put flowers on the gravestone whenever anyone passes the spot. The old man goes on to say that the village has abandoned all modern technology and lives in harmony with nature. They harvest rice in the traditional manner, use dead firewood and cow dung for fuel, and live to a ripe old age. (The old man himself is 103 years old.) After talking with “I,” the old man rises to join the funeral celebration of another villager. The inhabitants of the village do not mourn death when it comes naturally to those that have lived a full life. The film ends as the funeral procession passes. As “I” departs, he drops flowers over the grave of the stranger. Despite the heavy-handed thematic nature of the film, Dreams contains more depth and ambiguity than some critics give it credit for, probably due to the Western critics’ unfamiliarity with the folk religion upon which many of the “dreams” are based. The link to Japanese folklore provides the film with added layers which counteract the moralistic dialogue in much of the film. Of the eight episodes in Dreams, the first four are set in a specifically mythological mode. The first episode, “Sunshine Through the Rain,” features the mythological kitsune, or foxes. The kitsune are ambiguous spirits in Japanese folklore; they are seen as messengers for Inari, the rice diety, but they also function as the shape-shifting tricksters so common in Published by DigitalCommons@UNO, 2012 5 Journal of Religion & Film, Vol. 16 [2012], Iss. 2, Art. 3 mythology.11 In Dreams, the kitsune exhibit this ambiguous relationship to humans. “I” (a young boy) disobeys his mother and comes across a wedding of the kitsune. Because humans are not allowed to see these ceremonies, the boy is asked to commit suicide. His mother gives him no pity. The rules of the kitsune are harsh, but clear, and it is his own fault if he is now doomed to die. The scene ends with the boy leaving home to ask the foxes for unlikely forgiveness. The second episode, “The Peach Orchard,” explores the relationship between traditional Japanese dolls (hina-ningyo) and the spirits of peach trees. In Japanese folklore, such dolls are commonly thought to temporarily house spirits for the duration of the doll festival. If one appropriately welcomed these spirits into one’s home, they would secure blessings and prosperity for the next year.12 In this episode, however, the spirits are angered by the cutting down of the family’s peach orchard. The boy attempts to apologize to the spirits for this destruction, and eventually they understand that he also felt deeply the loss of the peach blossoms. In the form of a ceremonial dance, the spirits give the boy one last look at the orchard. In “The Blizzard,” Kurosawa draws on the folk legend of Yuki-onna. Yuki-onna is a spirit that appears during snowstorms in order to lure travelers to their deaths.13 In the film, a group of mountaineers are caught in a blizzard and begin to lose energy. They begin to fall asleep one by one. As the last climber succumbs to exhaustion, he sees a woman through the snow who spreads a blanket over him and assures him that, “The snow is warm.” Ultimately, he resists the temptation to sleep and awakens the other climbers. Film critic Terrence Rafferty’s review of this scene provides a good example of the misunderstanding that can occur when Western critics view the film without a knowledge of the underlying mythology. Of the Yuki-onna, he says, “We can’t take our eyes off her, and we’re never quite sure what she’s meant to represent. She is beautiful – impossibly, indefinably beautiful – and this is perhaps the most piercing image ever made of the desires that keep people https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol16/iss2/3 6 Heinzekehr: The Reenchantment of Eschatology from surrendering to death: this is a spirit to leap out of your deathbed in pursuit of.”14 Rafferty sees the beauty of the scene but misses the sinister nature of that beauty. The Yuki-onna represents, of course, the very desire to surrender, a desire to keep to one’s death bed rather than leaping out of it. Without the benefit of a mythological background, Rafferty misses the richness (and horror) of this scene. “The Tunnel” combines World War II imagery with the yurei of folk mythology. According to popular legend, a person’s reikon, or soul, travels through a sort of purgatory after death in order to join the ancestors. However, if a person dies with unfulfilled desires, their reikon, or soul, may transform into a ghostly yurei that haunts the physical world.15 Kurosawa depicts an officer who must face the yurei of a platoon of soldiers that were killed under his command. They report for duty as usual, not believing that they are dead, and the officer must convince them to leave this world for the afterlife. The fifth episode, “Crows,” portrays Kurosawa as an artist daydreaming in front of a set of Van Gogh paintings in a gallery. He imagines himself in the landscapes of the paintings, and has a conversation with Van Gogh himself. Despite the magical feel of this scene, it is clear that the intended interpretation is that of a daydream rather than any mythological event. It is interesting to note that this first de-mythologized scene is also the scene that introduces most clearly Western influences into the film. Except for the fifth episode, the only “dreams” that can be interpreted in a purely materialistic way are the scenes described earlier that deal with apocalyptic themes. “Mt. Fuji in Red” and “Village of the Watermills” both portray a heightened version of reality, the first nightmarish, the second idyllic. However, neither scene makes any explicit reference to Japanese folklore. “The Weeping Demon” does make explicit reference to mythology in its identification of the disfigured humans as oni (demons). In this scene, however, the folklore serves only as a Published by DigitalCommons@UNO, 2012 7 Journal of Religion & Film, Vol. 16 [2012], Iss. 2, Art. 3 metaphor for a strictly materialistic, albeit fanciful, possibility, i.e. total nuclear war and devastation. In the same way that humans who suffer greatly are said to become oni in some Japanese folktales,16 nuclear fallout has caused such intense suffering that the survivors are better described as monsters. This story does not rest on the actual existence of mythological spirits, as does the first half of the film. The contrast between the explicitly mythological first half of the film and the de- mythologized second half provides a commentary on the way that Western technology and civilization has broken into an Eastern context in the modern era. Apocalypticism, virtually unknown in Eastern paradigms, has forced its way into the Japanese psyche with Hiroshima. But this apocalypticism is not even the prophetic, value-laden apocalypticism of Christianity. At least the Christian vision of the end-times overlays ultimate meaning onto its view of hopelessness for this world. The nuclear age has shown the East, and Japan in particular, an uncompromising materialistic apocalypse. The resulting nihilism appears to leave no room for ultimate value. Yet Kurosawa does more than simply portray a nihilistic apocalypse. His nightmarish scenes present a strong opposition to the consumerism, technology and hubris that make nuclear destruction possible. Moreover, his setting of a materialistic apocalypse alongside mythological scenes leads the viewer to see materialism itself through a mythological lens. These factors, each of which we will examine in more detail, contribute to Kurosawa’s overall strategy. As a whole, Kurosawa aims to remythologize reality in order to finally arrive at the culmination of the film: the counter-apocalyptic vision of society in harmony with nature. The juxtaposition of “Mt. Fuji in Red” and “The Weeping Demon” with “Village of the Watermills” highlights Kurosawa’s objection to consumerism. In the former scene, destruction occurs not through an act of violence, but through an accident made possible by society’s greed for electricity. The nuclear plant exists, not because of any intrinsic necessity, but to quench https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol16/iss2/3 8