The Politics of Appropriation in French Revolutionary Theatre Submitted by Catrin Mair Francis to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in French in October 2012. The thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: 1 ABSTRACT This thesis examines the popularity of plays from the ancien régime in the theatre of the French Revolution. In spite of an influx of new plays, works dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were amongst the most frequently performed of the decade. Appropriation resulted in these tragedies and comedies becoming ‘Revolutionary’ and often overtly political in nature. In this thesis, I will establish how and why relatively obscure, neglected plays became both popular and Revolutionary at this time. I shall draw on eighteenth-century definitions of appropriation to guide my analysis of their success and adaptation, whilst the theoretical framework of pre-history and afterlives (as well as modern scholarship on exemplarity and the politicisation of the stage) will shape my research. To ensure that I investigate a representative selection of appropriated plays, I will look at five very different works, including two tragedies and three comedies, which pre-date the Revolution by at least thirty years. Voltaire’s Brutus enjoyed successive Revolutionary afterlives from 1789-1799, whereas Lemierre’s Guillaume Tell was only truly successful as political propaganda during the Terror. Meanwhile, Molière’s Misanthrope was subjected to censorship and Revolutionary alterations, but could not rival the extraordinary success of one of his lesser known comedies, Le Dépit amoureux, which suddenly became one of the most popular plays in the theatrical repertoire. Finally, Regnard’s Les Folies amoureuses became popular in the highly politicised theatre of the Revolution in spite of the fact that the comedy had no obvious connection to politics or republicanism. The power of appropriation was such that any play could become Revolutionary, as both audiences and the government used appropriation as a method of displaying their power, attacking their enemy, and supporting the progress of the French Revolution. 2 CONTENTS 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................p. 5 2. The Theory and Methodology of Revolutionary Appropriation...................p. 31 3. Defining the Corpus: Performance, Statistics and Political Appropriation...p. 57 4. Revolutionary Brutus: Royalist, Republican, Reject ....................................p. 86 5. Guillaume Tell: From Laughing Stock to National Hero .............................p. 121 6. Resetting the Clock on Le Misanthrope and Le Dépit amoureux: Positive and Negative Appropriation.................................................................................p. 158 7. Cross-Dressing, Role Play, Knights Errant and Tyrants: Overthrowing the Stereotypes of Power in Regnard’s Les Folies amoureuses .........................p. 187 8. Conclusion ....................................................................................................p. 206 9. Appendix.......................................................................................................p. 212 10. Bibliography..................................................................................................p. 214 3 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1: Bust of Voltaire..........................................................................................p. 153 Figure 2: Lucius Junius Brutus..................................................................................p. 154 Figure 3: Guillaume Tell et Gesler ...........................................................................p. 155 Figure 4: Section de Guillaume Tell..........................................................................p. 156 Figure 5: The Warship Guillaume Tell......................................................................p. 157 4 1: INTRODUCTION French Revolutionary theatre did not only see an influx of new dramas, but also the return of previously unpopular works to the stage.1 Those plays which suddenly became popular did not, however, make their re-appearance in their original form. It was necessary for them to be ‘appropriés aux circonstances’, which, in some instances, changed their very foundations.2 A clear example of this can be found in the changes wrought on the dénouement of Voltaire’s tragedy, La Mort de César. Performed mere days after Louis XVI’s execution in 1793, the play could not close on its original ending, in which Antoine (Mark Antony) rallies the Romans to join his cause against Brutus and Cassius shortly after Caesar’s murder. Such a scene was, as the journal reviewing the production made clear, out of step with Revolutionary events: ‘Dans la mort de César, les aristocrates et compagnie s’attendoient à applaudir la harangue d’Antoine en faveur du tyran massacré par les conjurés; mais les acteurs, trop patriotes pour ne pas changer un dénouement aussi peu compatible avec les circonstances, ont laissé ces messieurs avec un bon pied de nez, en terminant la pièce par la tirade [...] de Cassius’ (p. 228).3 The speech in question was entirely new, and transformed the tragedy’s plot: CASSIUS Que la haine des rois et de la tyrannie Suscite des vengeurs à la terre asservie. Le moment est venu de finir à-la-fois Les longs malheurs du monde et les crimes des rois; Qui monte sur un trône outrage la nature, Et c’est un saint devoir de venger cette injure [...] En enfonçant ce fer dans le coeur d’un tyran, Nous offrons à vos yeux un présage effrayant. 1 Susan Maslan indicates that no less than a thousand new plays were performed in Paris during the Revolution. See Revolutionary Acts. Theater, Democracy, and the French Revolution (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 15. 2 Journal des Théâtres, 1 August 1795. 3 La Vedette, ou journal du departement du Doubs, 8 February 1793. Although this journal is fervently pro-revolutionary and thus biased, there is no reason to doubt this portrayal of the adjustment to the play. 5 La liberté bientôt étendant ses conquêtes, Va fouler à ses pieds vos insolentes têtes, Et vous n’emporterez, en quittant l’univers, Que l’horreur des humains affranchis de vos fers.4 After the Revolutionaries had executed Louis XVI in much the same way that Brutus and Cassius had killed Caesar, the political and ideological basis of the tragedy had to be altered to approve of this act. This also ensured that ‘les aristocrates’ did not have an opportunity to protest against the Revolution through the play. Appropriation was not, however, a single, one-off event, but rather an ongoing process, with the plays it affected continuing to change in different ways. Another ending created for La Mort de César saw Brutus, Cassius and the Roman people swearing an oath of loyalty - or devotion - to Rome: BRUTUS S’il faut d’autre sang affermir ton empire, Ah! que Rome soit libre et que Brutus expire. CASSIUS Formons les mêmes voeux aux pieds de cet autel: Mourir pour son pays, c’est se rendre immortel. ROMAINS Nous jurons d’imiter son courage héroïque. VIVE LA LIBERTE! VIVE LA REPUBLIQUE! (III. 10)5 These additions were probably inspired by other ancien régime tragedies. The line ‘Ah! que Rome soit libre et que Brutus expire’ is an echo of the words spoken in Lemierre’s tragedy, Guillaume Tell:: ‘Que la Suisse soit libre, et que nos noms périssent!’6 Meanwhile, the vows of Brutus and Cassius recall Lucius Junius Brutus’s similar oaths sworn on l’autel de Mars in Act I of Voltaire’s tragedy Brutus.7 Historical accuracy was clearly subservient to the Revolutionary cause: it was more important that La Mort de 4 La Mort de César, cited in La Vedette, p. 228. 5 Voltaire, La Mort de César, tragédie en trois actes. Avec les changemens fait par le citoyen, Gohier, ministre de la justice (Lyon: L. Cutty, 1793-4). Louis-Jérôme Gohier was an ‘avocat, magistrat et homme politique’ (BnF catalogue). See César: calendrier électronique des spectacles sous l’ancien régime et sous la révolution <http://www.cesar.org.uk/cesar2/> [accessed 29 June 2012]. 6 This was also a revolutionary slogan. See Chapter 5, ‘Guillaume Tell: From Laughing Stock to National Hero’. 7 See Chapter 4, ‘Revolutionary Brutus: Royalist, Republican, Reject’. 6 César supported the course of the Revolution, even if its very content had to be radically changed to achieve this goal. The necessity of ensuring that every single play within the theatrical repertoire was pro-Revolutionary in sentiment was described in a police report dating from 1793: ‘Il est temps qu'une loi sage fasse taire tous ces échos de la tyrannie, et que la voix de la Liberté ait seule le droit de se faire entendre’.8 This did not always require plays to be entirely rewritten - as was the case with La Mort de César - but could be effected by replacing royalist, ancien régime terminology with more ‘Revolutionary’ vocabulary. Another of Voltaire’s tragedies, Adélaïde du Guesclin (1734), was altered in this way, with references to the ‘roi’ replaced by ‘foi’.9 In some cases, even these minor changes were not necessary, with plays becoming Revolutionary through the process of linking verses and lines (positively) with the Revolution. The audience’s determination to link what they saw on the stage with the events taking place in Paris was described in a police report from 1797: ‘les spectateurs appliquaient souvent des traits aux circonstances présentes’.10 The phenomenon was so wide-spread that contemporary journals noted it, with one describing this ‘trend’ in 1798: On distingue au théâtre deux sortes d’applications; celles qui font allusion à quelques événements politiques, ou à quelques personnages célèbres, auxquels le public applique certains passages de telle ou telle pièce qui paroissent lui convenir […] Les secondes ont pour objet les acteurs mêmes.11 8 ‘Rapport de Latour-Lamontagne’, 18 September 1793. <http://www.cesar.org.uk/cesar2/> [accessed 29 June 2012]. 9 For example, the verses ‘vous le priez ! Plaignez-le plus que moi / Plaignez-le; il vous offense; il a trahi son roi’ were altered to ‘vous le priez ! Plaignez-le plus que moi / Plaignez-le; il vous offense; il a trahi sa foi’. See Le Courrier des Spectacles, 29 June 1797. Reproduced in François-Alphonse Aulard, Paris pendant la réaction thermidorienne et sous le Directoire: recueil de documents pour l’histoire de l’esprit public à Paris (Paris: L. Cerf, 1900), IV, p. 196. 10 ‘Rapport du bureau central du 7 Floréal’, 25 April 1797. See Alphonse Aulard, Paris pendant la réaction thermidorienne et sous le Directoire (Paris: L. Cerf, 1901), IV, p. 81. 11 Le Censeur Dramatique, 9 April 1798, III, p. 306. 7 Remarkably, it appears that it was the ease with which a play could be ‘applied’ to contemporary events which marked out the level of success it would enjoy. This is demonstrated by an account of Destouches’s Le Philosophe amoureux: Ces deux vers seuls des Philosophes amoureux ont été applaudis par application: Il faut d'un criminel écouter la défense; / Condamner sans entendre est une violence.12 It is probable that these lines were applied to the government as a reaction against the violence of the Terror. The fact that the writer took the effort to illustrate that these lines were the only ones interpreted in such a way indicates some level of disappointment; it almost appears that it is this apparent failing of the comedy in the audience’s eyes which is the cause of the mediocrity ascribed to it. It seems, indeed, that the tendency to apply the content of plays to the Revolution was unstoppable, even when efforts were made to stop such behaviour. Le Courrier des Spectacles described its popularity, or omnipresence, in 1795: ‘si les acteurs du Théâtre-Français craignent des applications, qu’ils ne jouent donc pas cette pièce [Adelaïde du Guesclin], ni aucune autre; car on en peut trouver partout’.13 Every play could be linked to the Revolution, regardless of whether it pre-dated 1789 or not. The theatre, then, was deeply affected by the Revolution, and influenced it in turn. Plays were judged according to new standards, were interpreted in the light of their radically altered environment, and were performed on new stages, with at least 50 theatres opening in Paris.14 Not only did this cause the repertoire to be completely ‘remodelled’, but the works which had formed part of the pre-Revolutionary repertoire were re-made and reborn, as the example of La Mort de César demonstrates. They 12 ‘Rapport du bureau central du 2 prairial’, 2 June 1797. <http://www.cesar.org.uk/cesar2/> [accessed 29 June 2012]. 13 Le Courrier des Spectacles, 29 June 1797. Reproduced in Aulard, Paris pendant la réaction thermidorienne, IV, p. 197. 14 Emmet Kennedy, ‘The History of the Problem and the Method of Solving it’, in Theatre, Opera, and Audiences in Revolutionary Paris: Analysis and Repertory (Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1996), pp. 1-7 (p. 3). 8 were, in short, appropriated.15 It is those dramas dating from before the Revolutionary period, but which abruptly became popular or politically prominent from 1789-1799, which I will investigate in my thesis. In examining the Revolutionary careers of ancien régime plays, I shall ascertain how they were influenced, changed and re-envisaged by the theatre of the French Revolution - that is, the politics of appropriation. Three main topics will be outlined in this introduction. Firstly, I shall examine modern scholarship on the theatre of the French Revolution, with particular emphasis on work dealing with the relationship between politics and the theatre. This will enable me to identify those theories that will be drawn on in my thesis and present the theatrical model that I will use. Secondly, I will set out the major ‘phases’ of the theatre - that is, the general situation of the stage at key points of the Revolution. I shall then consider recent ideas about the dominance of ancien régime plays on the French Revolutionary stage and put forward my theory regarding this phenomenon. All of this information will influence and shape my investigation into individual plays and their careers on the stage from 1789 to 1799. I will close the chapter by establishing the issues that will be considered throughout this thesis and formulating key research questions. The Theatre of the French Revolution: Spectators, Politics and Influence The model of Revolutionary theatre that will be formed from the findings of my research is an inherently active one. It was not in any way a mirror which simply replicated external events and developments, but an active, creative force that influenced its environment and was, in turn, influenced by the Revolution. There was an ongoing dialogue between spectators and the stage, and between the stage and the government (or politics). Spectators responded strongly, vocally, and even violently to what was performed before them - meaning that they were able to shape and change 15 For the definition of appropriation as understood in this thesis, see Chapter 2, ‘The Theory and Methodology of Revolutionary Appropriation’. 9 plays, performances, and the theatre itself. On the other hand, the government used (and exploited) the stage to justify their decisions, to ‘educate’ the audience, and to promote Revolutionary ideals. The stage was thus - literally - caught at the centre of complicated, sometimes conflicting, influences - with the boundaries between stage and spectator, theatre and politics, blurring and becoming weak, occasionally even imperceptible. I shall therefore reject the reflective model of theatre that was used in early scholarship on the theatre of the French Revolution. This model has been advocated by the likes of Eugène Jauffret, who in highlighting the strong relationship between the theatre and its environment, argues that during times of political crisis the stage ‘représente alors plus particulièrement l’esprit public, et paraît être une image fidèle de la société, dont il exprime les passions, les entraînements, les folies, les instincts généreux’.16 In this strictly passive role, the stage is influenced by its environment, but does not exert its own influence. Ernest Lunel echoes this theory, describing theatre as ‘le miroir des epoques’.17 This reflective model has also been implicit in some examples of modern scholarship. Mark Darlow has suggested that, at this time, the theatre acts as ‘a representative system which re-enacts a particular species of that social drama (the repression or expulsion of that threat to social unity), inscribing this central anxiety of the Revolutionary situation at the work’s most basic level, to replay the re-establishment of cohesion in a mode akin to the festival’.18 The result of this is that ‘plays are self-conscious re-enactments [...] of the social drama surrounding the contemporary audience’ (p. 400). In other words, the stage reflects events taking place in society. The defeat of the enemy within a drama is therefore the defeat of the enemies of the Revolution, with that victory then being 16 Eugène Jauffret, Le Théâtre Révolutionnaire (Paris: Furne, Jauvet and Cie, 1869, repr. Geneva: Slatkine, 1970), p. v. 17 Ernest Lunel, Le Théâtre et la Révolution: Histoire Anecdotique des Spectacles, de leurs Comédiens et de leur Public par rapport à la Révolution Française (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1970), p. 10. 18 Mark Darlow, ‘History and (Meta-) Theatricality: The French Revolution’s Paranoid Aesthetics’ in Modern Language Review, 105, Part 2 (April 2010), 385-400 (p. 400). 10