Μουσείο Μπενάκη A Singular Antiquity: Archaeology and Hellenic Identity in Twentieth-Century Greece The excavation of the Ancient Agora of Athens: the politics of commissioning and managing the project Niki Sakka doi: 10.12681/benaki.17981 Copyright © 2018, Niki Sakka Άδεια χρήσης Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0. Βιβλιογραφική αναφορά: Sakka, N. (2008). The excavation of the Ancient Agora of Athens: the politics of commissioning and managing the project. Μουσείο Μπενάκη, 111–124. https://doi.org/10.12681/benaki.17981 https://epublishing.ekt.gr | e-Εκδότης: EKT | Πρόσβαση: 09/03/2023 02:04:12 Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) NIKI SAKKA The excavation of the Ancient Agora of Athens: the politics of commissioning and managing the project FROM THE MOMENT ATHENS was named capital city of the twentieth century, measures were taken towards of the newly founded Greek state in 1833, there were the rehabilitation of urban centres, by settling disputes persistent demands from Greek archaeologists, histori concerning real estate ownership and by exercising con ans, architects, and town-planners for the Agora to be trol over land use. Several pieces of legislation on town excavated. Politicians too dreamed of this.1 The evidence planning were introduced and remodelling schemes of the ancient literary sources,2 later supported by the re emerged.5 In the context of this politically justified trend sults of small-scale excavations, conducted by the Greek towards modernization, decisions affecting the historic Archaeological Society and the German Archaeological fabric were taken, including reviving the Agora issue, Institute from the middle of the nineteenth century on which by that time had reached a critical state.6 The in wards, revealed the unequivocal importance of the site herent weaknesses of the Greek administration (bureauc for our understanding of the archaeology and topogra racy, incoherent implementation of laws, political com phy of Athens (fig. 1). promises) had contributed to a gradual contraction of In the second decade of the twentieth century, after the the zone around the Acropolis, which was free from later Greek military defeat in Asia Minor and the relinquish buildings and reserved for archaeological excavations.7 ing of the Great Idea' with the consequent emphasis on In the aftermath of the Asia Minor Catastrophe in 1922 redefining and promoting Greek cultural specificity (Hel- with the subsequent massive influx of refugees, resulting lenicity), the issue of discovery, enhancement and display in strong pressure to find (or build) housing in the heart of ancient Athens was elevated to a duty for a nation that, of Athens, there was an imminent risk of ending up with in essence, owed its very existence to its past and at the a completely built-up area in the Agora, thus eliminating same time to a means of demonstrating its civilized sta any chance of future archaeological investigations. The tus. Given this particular set of historical circumstances Greek Minister for Public Instruction, R. Livathinopou- and assumptions, the area of the ancient Agora had to be los, admitted that 'those who had formerly been quietly 'purified' of its modern buildings, set apart from its sur waiting for their houses to be bought [...] began to de roundings, investigated and promoted as a national site of mand insistently that either their properties be bought great symbolic value.3 In April 1921, indeed, A. Philadel- immediately or they be given permission' to build new pheus submitted a memorandum to the Third National houses. 'Their boisterous protests have assumed [...] an Assembly requesting approval for the funds required for almost revolutionary tone'.8 Faced with these problems, the expropriation and excavation of the ancient Agora, on which were exacerbated by the tight state budget and the the occasion of the forthcoming centenary celebrations of prohibitive expenditure required for expropriations9 the Greek independence to be held in 1930." Government, despite its original intentions, relented and At a political level, from as early as the second decade granted new building permits, in an attempt to relieve 3rd SUPPLEMENT, ATHENS 2008 111 INCULAR ANTIQUITY NIKI SAKKA the social tension. But after a fierce reaction from the tential assignment of the excavation. E. Capps, Chairman Greek Archaeological Service, the Government's deci of the Managing Committee of the ASCSA from 1919 sion was temporarily suspended,10 confirming the pres to 1939, remarked that 'with the single exception of the tige and social influence of the archaeologists. At any discovery of the tomb of Tut-ank-amen in Egypt last year rate, if the comprehensive blocking of the excavation of [...] no topic of archaeological interest has aroused such the civic, economic and religious centre of ancient Ath widespread and favourable comment in the American ens was to be averted and the distinctive remnants of press as this project of the excavation of the Athenian an ideologically approved past were to be displayed, the Agora by the American School'.15 issue of property rights had to be regulated once and for Positive comments on the anticipated moral benefit all and a large section of the historic urban centre had of the project in leading journals increased the fame of to be cleared. the School, at the same time reviving popular interest The only feasible solution, if such an extensive and in the Greek past, against constant inter-war statements expensive enterprise were ever to be organized, was to concerning current devaluation of the status of classical appeal to the foreign archaeological schools. At a time of archaeology in American education and culture.16 In ad severe global economic recession, the American School dition, all this publicity acted as an extremely effective of Classical Studies at Athens (hereafter ASCSA) was the way of attracting the private capital on which the ASCSA only one to respond promptly11 Its decision to undertake relied to cover its operational and research costs. the ambitious project was completely consistent with its In an even broader context, given the established no research profile, its official focus on the study of classi tion that acknowledged culture as a way of bridging the cal civilisation and the wish to control the interpretation communication divide between two peoples, such a of this most distinguished archaeological field.12 It was promising research programme may have represented, in further motivated by the school's inter-war goals, which a small way, a means of increasing American economic ranged from the educational and scientific expansion of influence in Greece. At a period when Greek-Ameri the institute to the strengthening of its prestige and power can commercial relations were rapidly expanding and both in Greece and abroad. Indeed, its involvement in the American investment capital was becoming involved Agora excavation, as emerges from the correspondence of in the construction of Greek public works, such as the its officers, was set against a background of academic ri Marathon waterworks,17 it seems reasonable to associate valry. The ASCSA saw it as a means of promoting itself the excavation of the Agora and the success of the fund- at international level and as an attempt to contest Euro raising drive organized by the ASCSA with American pean dominance, by counterbalancing the successes of economic policy. The profit expected from this conver the French School at Delphi and Delos, of the German sion of cultural into material capital (in the sense inves Archaeological Institute at Olympia, and of the British tigated by Pierre Bourdieu)18 was stressed by the British School at Knossos.13 Moreover, the ASCSA as the main ambassador to Athens, LT. Henderson, in an official trustee of both portable and non-portable finds from a document making suggestions as to the benefit of Brit highly important site, the cradle of democracy, would be ish prestige in Greece with reference to the American come a training ground for archaeologists and architects example: 'the Americans realize the prestige that archae who, on returning to their native land, would form the ologists' work brings in countries which, like Greece, nucleus of American Classical studies: 'Not only is this Italy and Egypt, are proud of their past and their rich area the richest in promise of discovery of any that exists men give generously with the result that the American in Greece, but [...] we shall be able to develop a body of School is better equipped than ours and doesn't have to trained scholars in all diverse fields of Classical Antiqui decline work owing to lack of money'.19 ties and provide them with material for many years of Besides the expected accumulation of material wealth, work of the highest significance for our future knowledge in an era of change and challenge to the existing order, of the ancient civilization of Greece'.14 the American elite, by supporting the Agora project, and The American press was a valuable ally sharing in and thus classical archaeology, was affirming a traditional encouraging the School's expectations as regards the po code of values in the face of Bolshevism and the Bau- 112 MOUSEIO BENAKI ARCHAEOLOGY AND HELLENIC IDENTITY IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY GREECE The excavation of the Ancient Agora of Athens: the politics of commissioning and managing the project 1933. J.D. Rockefeller, who remained anonymous for a considerable time,27 was also involved in the man agement of the project, though indirectly. As the main sponsor, he considered it his self-evident right to be kept informed 'about the attitude of the Greek Government, that of the property holders in the Agora district, the re sults of the first expropriations, the organization set up for the various parts of the undertaking and the plans as they develop for the actual work of excavation'.28 Thus, even Capps occasionally attempted to conceal develop ments that would have had a potentially negative effect Fig. 1. View of the Stoa of the Giants in 1935, on Rockefeller's decision to fund the excavations.29 image: 2008.18.0016 (photo: American School On 8 August 1927, the Greek Minister of Public In of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations). struction, M. Argyros, granted the School the concession no. 35464/1239 to excavate the part of Athens 'which is bounded on the south by the Acropolis and the hill of the Areopagus, on the west by the elevation on which the haus.20 Further ideological propaganda benefits were an Theseum stands from the Areopagus to the entrenchment ticipated from the fact that a democratic state with a long of the electric railway, on the north by the entrenchment history of Philhellenism was exploring the birthplace of of the electric railway as far as Monastiraki and from there democracy, at a time when Mussolini's regime was using by the southern side of Pandrosus street until its junction archaeology and large-scale excavations in the imperial with Aeolus street and on the east by a line beginning at fora to establish connections between Fascism and an Aeolus street at the point where it is joined by Pandrosus cient Rome.21 street and continuing straight to the Acropolis'.30 It was, probably, in this general spirit that J.D. Rock Despite Capps' expectations,31 the permit was not ac efeller decided to support this promising enterprise cepted immediately. The Trustees of the ASCSA refused financially, having been persuaded both of the wide to countersign a concession32 that would oblige the insti appeal of the Agora excavations and of the great im tution to expropriate, section by section over a period of portance of the expected finds. In addition, the ASCSA's five years, the entire site to be excavated - a total of 577 organisational skills and its experience in mobilizing structures, housing almost 8000 individuals.33 On the human and financial resources to create a stimulating one hand, this would require exorbitant sums of money. and productive atmosphere22 must have confirmed his On the other, it would create a huge amount of tiresome decision since they could guarantee the conversion of his administrative work, enough to absorb the entire ener invested economic capital into symbolic capital.23 gies of the School staff and reduce significantly the time Official negotiations to draw up an agreement that that, otherwise, would have been devoted to carrying would regulate the terms of the excavation were entered out purely scientific work.34 On top of that, the permit into with the Ministry of Public Instruction in 1927.24 indirectly obliged the School to complete the excava Edward Capps, a dynamic key-figure in the undertak tions once it had undertaken them. A commitment of ing of the project, very influential with both Greek and this kind, however, was irreconcilable with one of the American political and economic circles and a close as basic conditions set by Rockefeller for his funding of the sociate of Venizelos,25 led the negotiations, assisted by R. project. Indeed, through a letter from his representative, Carpenter, the Director of the ASCSA, A. Kyriakidis, A. Flexner, he had declared his active interest in the un counsel and legal adviser to the Agora project and A. dertaking and his intention of providing the ASCSA im Adossidis, its Business Manager.26 The main representa mediately, as an indication of good faith, with the sum tive on the Greek side was Konstantinos Kourouniotis, of $25,000, which he judged sufficient for the finalizing Director of the Archaeological Service from 1925 to of the agreement with the Greek government. However, 3rd SUPPLEMENT, ATHENS 2008 113 A SINGULA R ANTIQUITY NIKI SAKKA an additional sum of $225,000 would be placed at the A. Michalakopoulos. Colonel Olds of the State Depart disposition of the School only if it could conclude an ar ment, on his part, promised to ask the United States rangement that would secure its right to withdraw from ambassador to Greece, R. Skinner, to stress the Depart the concession under certain contingencies.35 According ment's profound interest in the enterprise, 'as bearing to the donor, this condition would ensure, independent upon the relation of the two countries and to urge the ly of any potential political unrest, the unstinting co-op favourable consideration' of the proposed modifications eration of the Greek state in surmounting complex man to the concession.42 agement issues, conflicting interests including expected On 30 January 1928, Capps wrote to Kourouniotis, resistance from the landowners and second thoughts on communicating the results of the above mentioned con the part of the centralized bureaucracy. The Minister ference with the officials of both countries, stressing at of Public Instruction, however, could hardly concede in the same time, the political and academic impact of a writing to grant the School according to the resolutions possible breakdown in the negotiations. In a further ef passed by the Trustees36 the right to proceed gradually, fort to strengthen his hand, Capps linked the effective over a period of 25 to 30 years, to expropriations of those and cordial Greek-American co-operation in the Agora sections selected each time for excavation and to with project with the prospect of new American financial draw, if necessary, from the project. Such terms would grants to the Archaeological Service for the administra entail the risk of social unrest caused by intensifying the tion of museums and sites, the conducting of excavations sense of uncertainty among the inhabitants of the dis and the execution of restoration and conservation work. trict. A new cycle of negotiations began. The proposal was tactfully expressed to avoid offend The excavation of the Agora was evolving into a com ing the Greek archaeologists. To this end the American plex matter of major importance, not only for the Greek intervention was justified as a small token of interest in state, but also for the ASCSA and E. Capps, who had Greek archaeology, indicating America's recognition of been commissioned to carry out the task. After the wide the manifold problems of maintenance and management publicity that the affair had received, failure to conclude of the great bulk of material remains dispersed through the necessary agreement would severely undermine the out Greece.43 academic prestige of the School, and would naturally Given the fact that after the Asia Minor Disaster, the call into question the competence of all those who had Greek state relied on foreign lending for the achieve been actively involved in the project.37 ment of its goals - that is, the economic rehabilitation Capps was fully aware of the ASCSAs negotiating of the country and the securing of the revenues required strength, which derived from the political and economic for the maintenance of the army and the integration of dependence of this small state on the Great Powers, and the refugees44 - it is obvious that even minor issues such did not hesitate to use this political capital™ in order to as the terms for an excavation permit required delicate secure an amendment to the terms of the permit, issued handling. Thus, 'through the very kind offices of Mr on 8 August 192739 Thus, he decided to acquaint both Skinner', in the words of E. Capps, and due perhaps the Greek minister plenipotentiary in Washington, Ch. to 'the very urgency of the question, the Greek Minis Simopoulos, and the Under-Secretary of State of the ter has come around' to the ASCSAs 'view of the case',45 United States, Colonel R.E. Olds, with all the details, although this created injustices, admitted even by the asking at the same time for their concerted support. At American ambassador in Athens.46 the conference held on 21 January 1928 in Washington, On 8 August 1928, the government of E. Venize- Simopoulos admitted that cancellation of the agreement los granted a new concession, which envisaged, at the with the School 'would seriously affect the standing of School's suggestion,47 the reduction of the area to be ex Greece in America',40 at a period when negotiations were propriated and investigated by the Americans. Thus, the still in progress for the conclusion of the second refugee territory of the initial permit of the previous August was loan, the approval of which required ratification by the to be divided into two parts that would be simultaneously American Congress.41 He, therefore, agreed to make the excavated, the western part, up to the Stoa of Attalos, strongest possible representations to his foreign minister, by the Americans and the eastern part by the Greek Ar- 114 MOUSEIO BENAKI ARCHAEOLOGY AND HELLENIC IDENTITY IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY GREECE The excavation of the Ancient Agora of Athens: the politics of commissioning and managing the project Fig. 2. View of the Agora on the first day of excavations, image: 2008.18.0005 (photo: American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations). chaeological Service.48 This new agreement was intended One of the basic terms was the successive expropriation of to facilitate negotiations, since by reducing the American properties by sections, depending on the progress of the zone and subsequently the predicted duration of the exca work, over a period of ten years, the length of time pre vations, social pressure was likely to become less intense. dicted for the excavations (Articles 3 and 8). According to The Trustees accepted the Greek Concession under the a verbal statement, made by K. Gondikas, this was purely officially communicated understanding that the School a token clause since once the time limit had expired it regarded its right to withdraw as inherent in the under could be automatically renewed.52 The same Decree en taking.49 forced a ban on major or minor alterations to the existing Another three months passed before the Minister of edifices for the ten-year period (Article 2). The task of Public Instruction, K. Gontikas, informed the Director assessing the indemnities was assigned to a Committee of the ASCSA, R. Carpenter, that work had begun on of Evaluation, which was not allowed to accept verbal drafting the legislative framework of the excavations, ac testimony (Article 12). Instead, it had to base its work on cording to the principles already agreed upon with the actual documentary evidence (Article 24), such as tax re School.50 The Decree, in the preparation of which repre turns, which, in practice, guaranteed the best protection sentatives of the ASCSA had participated, was issued on for the ASCSA, given that taxpayers tend to declare the the proposal of the Cabinet with the current opinion of the lowest possible income and to minimize the value of their appropriate Parliamentary Committee and was published real estate. The Decree was, rightly, criticised fiercely by in the Greek Government Gazette on 23 March 1929.51 the press, while there was a considerable outcry among 3rd SUPPLEMENT, ATHENS 2008 115 INCULAR ANTIQUITY NIKI SAKKA Fig. 3. View of the Agora 75 years later, image: 2008.18.0008 (photo: American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations). the local residents, who formed the Association of Renters cree, which legitimises the confiscation of their property of houses and shops and the Owners' Committee for their in a manner that could not have happened even in the better representation. medieval period and in a badly administrated state'.54 It is worth noting, at this point, that what was dis puted, at least by the official delegates of the residents, Given the sentimental attachment of the residents to was not the actual need to carry out the excavations but the homes where they had lived for years, and the gen the legal framework for this.53 Thus, at a meeting of the eral problems arising out of the compulsory purchase property owners, J. Alibertis, a member of their Com orders, particularly at a time of housing shortage, one mittee, boasts of their ancient heritage, while expressing would have expected them to resist eviction from their at the same time bitterness, and frustration at state indif homes and the general area. The owners' representatives, ference and insensitivity to the citizen's complaints: however, seemed to acquiesce in the enhancement and promotion of the ancient ruins and simply required state 'The people who first settled in Athens, this intellectual intervention in renegotiating the terms of expropriation aristocracy of Athens [...] cannot fail to appreciate the im and the protection of their economic interests. Had they portance and the necessity of the archaeological excava internalized the official rhetoric on the uniqueness and tions. They are not, therefore, opposed to them. They are the major importance of the 'area around the Acropolis, opposed, however, with the whole of their heart, to the whose treasures', according to the Minister of Public In way in which the indemnities are determined by the De struction, Gontikas, 'belong to history, to scholarship, 116 MOUSEIO BENAKI ARCHAEOLOGY AND HELLENIC IDENTITY IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY GREECE The excavation of the Ancient Agora of Athens: the politics of commissioning and managing the project to the entire world?'55 Or having realized that the exca litical cost of passing a law that demonstrably affected vations were apparently inevitable, were they seeking to the interests of a large number of voters. In spite of the conform, at least superficially, to dominant stereotypes, stern resistance from the parliamentary opposition and to demonstrate their affiliation to the cultivated classes, local residents, he insisted on voting the law including taking explicit exception only to state insensitivity? It is the amendments, suggested by the School for its own equally possible that their assent was due to a widespread benefit.66 For instance, provisions such as the appoint feeling of insecurity about the fate of their living quar ment of two representatives of the ASCSA67 instead of ters and the uncertainties arising out of the long-term one68 on the Committee of Evaluation, guaranteed that 'freezing' of their properties and their unsatisfactory American economic interests would be secured.69 That dealings with the Greek public authorities. amendment, submitted by Adossidis to the Greek Min In the same spirit, the daily press did not argue for the ister of Public Instruction70 in a letter written soon after preservation of the urban agglomeration, considering it the publication of the Decree in the Government Ga more important that efforts should be made to rescue zette, was accepted by the Parliament in the course of from 'the depths of the centuries, all tangible information the debate over Law 4212. about the life, art and culture of ancient Greece [...] be Law 4212 was voted by the Parliament and endorsed fore the astonished eyes of the civilized world'.56 Although by the Senate in July 1929. A number of essential addi there were reports of'protests on sentimental grounds' for tions and amendments were passed in April 193 0,71 at the loss of 'sweet, old Athens',57 (fig. 2) the vision of an which date the negotiations essentially came to an end, archaeological park prevailed,58 of an area planted with five years after they had began, while actual excavation trees (fig. 3), 'rather like the Forum or the Palatine Hill work started the following year (figs 4-5). Having secured in Rome',59 an Athens that would be 'liberated, cleaned a favourable legislative framework, the ASCSA tried to up', would 'breathe again' after the demolition of the further facilitate things through initiatives such as a do 'miserable, unhealthy, ramshackle houses and huts'60 and nation of $10,000 to the Greek State72 on the formally a proper display of the ancient city 'with its streets and communicated condition that the Archaeological Service buildings'.61 Accordingly, the protests of the press were should proceed to expropriations in the Greek zone prior concentrated on the economic interactions, inveighing to the ASCSA taking any such steps in their zone. The against the terms of a decree that was permitting 'the un aim was 'to save a good deal more than the amount of the heard of, unprecedented plundering of private property'62 investment'73 since the usual practice of the state offering and against the unconstitutional stance of the Greek gov low indemnities in cases of compulsory expropriations in ernment, which 'had allowed itself senselessly and in a the interest of a public cause would constitute a precedent most undignified manner to be subjugated to the Ameri and would have later the effect of bringing down real can School'.63 It was a debate in which the tone was set by estate prices in the American zone.74 To the same end, local resentment against the neo-colonial attitude of the Capps in an attempt to develop closer relations with the ASCSA. American archaeologists were accused of exhibit Greek archaeological authorities, accepted Kourouniotis' ing exploitative behaviour towards the local residents and request to find funding for his excavation at Eleusis.75 being indifferent to their present-day needs in order to More specifically, in a personal letter to Capps, Kour reveal the accomplishments of a revered past.64 ouniotis formally applied for American assistance' since Overcoming these objections and settling the matter his work at Eleusis was progressing 'frightfully slowly as in accordance with the demands of the School depend the money, which the Archaeological Section was able ed, as Adossidis had observed in the past,65 entirely on to place at' his 'disposal', was 'ridiculously little'.76 Capps the then Greek Prime Minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, took up the matter informally with the Rockefeller Foun who once more supported powerfully the Agora project. dation making clear that 'while the excavation itself is In fact, even though the Decree of 23 March 1929 was unquestionably a highly important one and being carried introduced to Parliament for ratification just before the out and brought to publication in the most scientific way, elections for the Senate, Venizelos, anxious to avert the yet from the American point of view its chief importance wrecking of the undertaking, ignored the potential po at the present moment lay in the fact that Dr Kourouni- 3rd SUPPLEMENT, ATHENS 2008 117 A SINGULAR ANTIQUITY NIKI SAKKA Fig. 4. View of the west side of the Agora, 19 June 1931, image: 2008.18.0004 (photo: American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations). otis, through his official position, is the officer of the t, to replace Kourouniotis with a civil engineer work Greek Government on whom devolve all the work and ing for the state, the School resisted very strongly.80 many of the decisions in connection with the projected The socio-economic problems arising out of the im American excavation of the Athenian Agora'.77 plementation of Law 4212 were outlined by Adossidis The Rockefeller Foundation, however, having not at himself in a letter to Capps: at a time of economic crisis, that time formulated a policy regarding support of exca residents in the area of the Agora, most of whom were vations, could not sponsor the Eleusis project 'on its in 'poor people who struggled to make a living', could not trinsic merit'. So, Capps turned to Rockefeller asking him, liquidate their real estate. They could find no private through A. Woods, 'to finance Kourouniotis' excavations purchasers for their houses, nor could they take out a at Eleusis through School's instrumentality',78 a proposi mortgage on them as long as the question of expropria tion that was finally adopted.79 So, Kourouniotis was re tion remained in suspense, since no potential buyer or ceiving the grant of $10,000, made over a four-year period creditor knew either the exact amount of the compensa while he was a member of the Agora Committee of Evalu tion or when it would be paid. Considerable anxiety was ation. And perhaps we should not overlook the fact that generated by the ban imposed on even minor repairs to when G Papandreou, Gontikas' successor at the Ministry buildings, since even in cases where the repairs were ab of Instruction, attempted, under pressure from the local solutely essential the owner had to sign that he would property owners, to have Law 4212 amended and, inter not subsequently ask for greater indemnity81 What is 118 MOUSEIO BENAKI ARCHAEOLOGY AND HELLENIC IDENTITY IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY GREECE The excavation of the Ancient Agora of Athens: the politics of commissioning and managing the project Fig. 5. View across Section E with church of Panagia Vlassarou in the center, image: 2008.18.0033 (photo: American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations). more, the appraisals of the buildings and the final as infrastructure to respond properly to its obligations to the sessment of the indemnities were, as expected, 'very fa landowners, nor the political will to do so. It assigned the vourable' to the ASCSA.82 project without any real preparation or thorough assess The archaeological investigation of the Agora was a ment of the social consequences, and without trying to duty incumbent on the Greek government. After many integrate it into a comprehensive planning strategy. De setbacks the issue which had been pending for almost a cisions relating to an area declared monumental (accord century was settled with the consensus of both scholars ing to Herzfeld's term)85 by the state were taken within and the wider public. Acting as the guardian of national a volatile political and economic climate, in the shadow values the state had to convert this residential area into of limited state revenues and of the unavoidable risk that, an archaeological site, which would subsequently become in the existing circumstances, the archaeological explora a tourist attraction, in a period when organized tourism tion of the Agora would have to be completely suspended was appearing for the first time in Greece.83 As Doris if foreign financial support were not forthcoming. notes, however, it is a firm principle of law that, if re It was these same priorities shaped by long established strictions of any kind are imposed upon the rights of the national ideologies and individual preconceptions that individual for the public benefit the burden must fall not unquestionably influenced the choices of the Greek ar on the individual but on the state and the society84 In the chaeological community86 Greek archaeology, as many case of the Agora, the state neither possessed the financial scholars have already pointed out, was involved in the 3rd SUPPLEMENT, ATHENS 2008 119