Star Trek and the Anthropological Enterprise: Cultural Relativism and Tolerance in Contemporary America Shaun R. Mulvey A thesis submitted to the Universiry of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Anthropology Winnipeg, Manitoba c. Shaun R. Mulvey,2004 TIIE LINIVERSITY OF' MANITOBA FACI]LTY OF GRADUATE STI]DIES *tr*** COPYRIGHT PERMISSION Star Trek and the Anthropological Enterprise: Cultural Relativism and Tolerance in Contemporary America BY Shaun R. Mulvey A ThesislPracticum submitted to the tr'aculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the degree of MASTER OF'ARTS Shaun R. Mulvey @2004 Permission has been granted to the Library of the University of Manitoba to lend or sell copies of this thesis/practicum, to the National Library of Canada to microfilm this thesis and to lend or sell copies of the film, and to University Microfilms Inc. to publish an abstract of this thesis/practicum. This reproduction or copy of this thesis has been made available by authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research, and may only be reproduced and copied as permitted by copyright laws or with express written authorization from the copyright owner. Abstract Cultural relativism and an ethic of tolerance have become common values in American culture. Originating in the anthropological tradition of historical particularism, the doctrine became an influential component of anthropological practice and activism since the early twentieth century. Cultural relativism has since become a contentious subject in contemporary America, manifesting itself in American civil society in both debates about a culture war and in human rights discourse. The doctrine's influence can also be gauged in popular and mass culture, especially in the various television Star Trek series. The objectives of the present thesis are twofold. First, we will consider the doctrine's diffusion into popular American culture with specific reference to its salient features and appearance in the debates about an American culture war. Second, we will consider its appearance in Star Trek and address the manner in which the television show provides a complicated interpretation of its ethical and political implications. The methodology utilized in the present thesis has been adopted from the work of Roland Barthes. His semiotic method allows for a detailed analysis of the various codes structuring a text and its intertextual nature. Genre analysis has also been used to understand the relationship between Star Trek and science fiction in general. A theoretical framework has been elicited from the work of Antonio Gramsci, Raymond Williams, and Victor Turner. Gramsci's concepts of hegemony, coûrmon sense, and folklore have been important in suggesting that ideological processes are not unidirectional but are rather complicated by various factors. Victor Turner's concept of liminoid phenomena has been utilized to suggest the medium's status as a forum for the presentation of debates about American culture and values. Acknowledgements Facing the task of writing this section of my thesis, I was struck by the realization of the numerous individuals who have contributed to its completion as well as the daunting task of properly expressing my appreciation for their assistance and companionship. Often in subtle ways, they have given of themselves out of friendship and concern for my success. My association with them has been of immeasurable benefit and has enriched my life immensely. The experience of graduate school lends itself to many metaphors, each a desperate attempt to relate an experience that is often one of isolation, frustration and unease. One must become accustomed to the perennial anxiety associated with each new stage in the process ofgraduate education. The book you hold in your hand is merely the final outcome of this lengthy process. I want to thank everyone for helping me shoulder the many burdens associated with graduate school. I would like to thank my committee members for their assistance during the course of my studies. They have made a considerable contribution to my intellectual and emotional maturation both during the preparation of this thesis as well as coursework. Dr. Ellen Judd has always challenged me to surpass any preconceptions I might have had about a given subject and encouraged the finest quality of research and writing. Dr. David Creamer, S.J. provided an environment of support and intellectual curiosity during his involvement in this work that was greatly appreciated. Finally, Dr. David Stymeist, my advisor, has gone well beyond his responsibilities as my advisor, providing the assistance required to see my work to completion. Thank you for allowing me to explore strange new worlds during my course of studies and dare to devote my time to the present research. I would like to thank my mother and father, Eleanor and Richard Mulvey, for their unconditional support. Thank you for being who you are and giving me the environment in which I could flourish. You have always shown the proper path in everything you have accomplished. Thank you. I would also like to thank Joanne, Rich, Aaron, and Matthew for everything they have done for me. You cannot appreciate the benefits I gained from spending evenings at your place enjoying the laughs and air hockey. I would also like to acknowledge my new family: Khorshed and Homi Canteenwala. Thank you for always providing the emotional support Cherry and I needed to complete this project. I would also like to thank Kumi for the support she has offered in abundance and love. I have been extremely blessed to have met so many wonderful people during my program. I would like to thank in particular several individuals who have become friends, including George Nikou, Allan Suchan, Dr. Brett Nichols, and Silvia Martens. Your willingness to listen to my endless ramblings has been appreciated. I would also like to thank Darrell and Glenn Wark for their interest and support. Finally, I want to thank Rachel Murdock for her assistance in formatting this thesis when I seemed to have finally met my Waterloo. I would also like to acknowledge three individuals who have enriched my life immeasurably. They have each kindled my passion for leaming and shown total commitment to scholarship.kì a university environment often stultifying and sterile, they have graced me with their love of knowledge and its pursuit. Although not directly involved in my thesis work,I would like to thank the late Dr. John Matthiasson for his contribution to my intellectual maturity. His tender and unassuming manner was matched only by his passion for scholarship and its importance beyond the limited conceits of academia. I would like to thank the late Robert Van Megroet for teaching me about the beauty of learning and knowledge. Finally, I would like to acknowledge my friend Brian Benoit for his endless support. Thank you for your sincere pursuit of learning and for the countless ways you have enriched my life. Thanks for debating the 'culture wars' over coffee and always managing to end the evening with a healthy dose of Hegel. Finally,I want to thank Cherry, my wife and confidant, and Emma, our beautiful daughter, for sharing my life and passion for learning. She was present when I first conceived the idea for this thesis and been alongside ever since. I cannot express to you what you have meant to me in all my travails and victories through the years. We are truly blessed as a family. Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Chapter One: The Context and Scope of the Present Thesis 1 Objectives of the Present Thesis 4 A Review of the Popular and Academic Literature on Star Trek 6 The Scope of the Present Thesis T6 An Overview of Chapter Contents L9 Chapter Two: A History of Star Trek and Its Universe 22 A History of Star Trek on Television and Film 24 The Star Trek Universe 37 Conclusion 43 Chapter Three: Anthropology, Cultural Relativism, and Tolerance 45 Preliminary Defi nitions of Relativism 49 Cultural Relativism and Historical Particula¡ism 62 Criticisms of Cultural Relativism 80 Conclusion 84 Chapter Four: Semiotics, Genre, and an Analysis of Star Trek 86 Semiotics, Genre, and an Analysis of Television 87 Analysis of Episodes 94 Conclusion r04 Chapter Five: Star Trek and Cultural Difference: Negotiating a Multicultural America 105 Cultural Relativism and a Contemporary American Culrure War ro7 Cultural Relativism and American Common Sense 119 Star Trek' s Anthropological Sensibility 127 Chapter Six: The Liminoid Characteristics of Television r42 Endnotes 150 Bibliography t52 Chapter One: The Context ønd Scope of the Present Thesís The media are now, arguably, our culture's primary symbolic system. They will certainly be so throughout the next century. Those who do not understand how the media work, how they construct meanings, how they can be used, and how the evidence they present can be weighed and evaluated are, in contemporary cultures, considerably disadvantaged and disempowered-læn Masterman (in Pungente 1999:20). Education is ideally civil defence against media fallout. Yet Westem man has had, so far, no education or equipment for meeting any of the new media on their own terms. Literate man is not only numb and vague in the presence of film or photo, but he intensifies his ineptness by a defensive arrogance and condescension to 'pop kulch' and 'mass entertainment'. It was in this spirit of bulldog opacity that the scholastic philosophers failed to meet the challenge of the printed word in the sixteenth century. The vested interests of acquired knowledge and conventional wisdom have always been bypassed and engulfed by new media-Marshall Mcluhan (in Pungente 1999:4). In retrospect, Marshall Mcluhan's prophetic suggestion that the twentieth century would bear witness to the emergence of a global village can no longer be merely acknowledged for its theoretical plausibility. In the brief span of a century, the world has experienced a profound transformation of the manner in which we cofirmunicate beyond the insular confines of our cultural heritages. Reverberating with the intensity of earlier technological innovations, such as the printing press and telegraph, these innovations in mass communication have had an undeniable effect on the way we experience and understand our contemporary world. The twentieth century, in effect, has bequethed a radical succession of communication media that have profoundly altered the landscape of our imagination and the means available for its expression. This can be seen nowhere more signif,rcantly than in the medium of television. Although other forms of mass media have predated its advent and continue to exert influence on contemporary society (such as print media, radio, and cinema) television is arguably the preeminent mass medium. To a certain degtee, we have grown accustomed to the not so infrequent lament that television is a blight that needs to be excised from our lives. The medium has drawn the ire of those wishing to subvert its overwhelming presence, chastising those involved in the industry for their laissez-faire disregard for issues of quality and education. Television has come to be regarded as a certain danger to our youth, inculcating a cavalier attitude toward violence and sexual activity in the most impressionable section of our society. We have come to expect hostile indictments from critics on either side of the political spectrum. Conservative commentators have identified television as a serious force that has contributed to the reduction of literacy, family values, and involvement in the democratic process. Conversely, liberal critics have seen television as a detriment to greater equality, neglecting judicious coverage of social issues such as gender and racial relations in favour of formulaic entertainment designed to pacify its audience. It has also drawn criticism for its commercial basis, developing programs established for the sole purpose of encouraging consumerism and conspicuous consumption. In a sense, we cannot fault either group for their concern about the effects of television. The medium's all-pervasive reach cannot be denied. According to the 1996 Canadian Census, there were 28,846,761Canadians living in 11,580,000 households across the nation (Pungente 1999.,21-2\ More particularly, statistics have indicated that *1I,482,000 lhouseholds] have at least one television set (more than half have two or more); 11,425,0W have a radio; 9,808,000 have a video tape recorder (one in five homes has two or more); and 8,539,000 have cable television" (1999:22). Although this Census