Stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Related titles: Wind energy systems: Optimising design and construction for safe and reliable operation (ISBN 978-1-84569-580-4) Large-scale wind power generation is one of the fastest developing sources of renewable energy and already makes substantial contributions to power grids in many countries worldwide. With technology maturing, the challenge is now to increase penetration, and optimise the design, construction and performance of wind energy systems. Fundamental issues of safety and reliability are paramount in this drive to increase capacity and effi ciency. This book provides a comprehensive reference on the design and construction of wind energy systems, from wind resource modelling and siting considerations, to advanced systems integration and optimisation, including offshore and other problematic environments. Solid oxide fuel cell technology: Principles, performance and operations (ISBN 978-1-84569-628-3) High-temperature solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technology is a promising power generation option, which features high electrical effi ciency and low emissions of environmentally polluting gases such as CO, NO and SO. It is ideal for distributed 2 x x stationary power generation applications where both high-effi ciency electricity and high-quality heat are in strong demand. This book presents a systematic and in- depth narrative of the technology from the perspective of fundamentals, providing comprehensive theoretical analysis and innovative characterisation techniques for SOFC technology. The book covers the development of SOFC technology, from cell materials and fabrication, to performance analysis and stability and durability issues. Details of these and other Woodhead Publishing books can be obtained by: • visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com • contacting Customer Services (e-mail: [email protected]; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext. 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel. and fax as above; e-mail: francis. [email protected]). Please confi rm which subject areas you are interested in. © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 6 Stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems Technology, energy storage and applications Edited by J. K. Kaldellis Oxford Cambridge New Delhi © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 The authors have asserted their moral rights. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. 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Typeset by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Contents Contributor contact details xiii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xvii Preface xix Part I Fundamental science and engineering of stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems and energy storage technology 1 1 Overview of stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems 3 J. K. Kaldellis, TEI of Piraeus, Greece 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Description of a wind-based stand-alone energy system 4 1.3 Description of a stand-alone hybrid energy system 7 1.4 Energy storage opportunities of stand-alone hybrid energy systems 11 1.5 Applications of stand-alone and hybrid energy systems 13 1.6 The future of stand-alone hybrid energy systems 24 1.7 References 26 2 Overview of energy storage technologies for renewable energy systems 29 D. P. Zafi rakis, TEI of Piraeus, Greece 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 Description of a typical energy storage system (ESS) 32 2.3 Application range of energy storage systems (ESSs): category of generation 42 2.4 Application range of energy storage systems (ESSs): category of transmission and distribution 44 v © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 vi Contents 2.5 Application range of energy storage systems (ESSs): category of customer service 46 2.6 Application range of energy storage systems (ESSs): requirements of electricity applications 47 2.7 Contemporary energy storage systems (ESSs) 49 2.8 Mechanical energy storage 50 2.9 Chemical energy storage 53 2.10 Electrical energy storage 61 2.11 Comparison of energy storage systems (ESSs) 63 2.12 Future trends 72 2.13 References 74 3 Design and performance optimisation of stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems 81 E. Kondili, TEI of Piraeus, Greece 3.1 Introduction: scope and objectives of the chapter 81 3.2 Energy systems modelling 82 3.3 Synthesis, design and operation of a hybrid energy system 87 3.4 Hybrid energy systems optimisation techniques 91 3.5 Software tools for the simulation and optimisation of hybrid energy systems 94 3.6 Summary of optimisation techniques 96 3.7 Future trends 97 3.8 References and further reading 98 4 Feasibility assessment for stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems 102 J. K. Kaldellis, TEI of Piraeus, Greece 4.1 Introduction 102 4.2 First installation cost of a typical stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) system 104 4.3 Maintenance and operation cost of a typical stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) system 107 4.4 Cost-benefi t analysis of a typical stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) system 109 4.5 Reliability impact-loss of load cost of a typical stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) system 112 4.6 Electricity generation cost of a typical stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) system 114 4.7 Socio-environmental impacts of stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) systems 115 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Contents vii 4.8 Analysis of case studies of stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) systems 121 4.9 Sensitivity analysis of the fi nancial behaviour of stand-alone hybrid electricity generation wind-based (HEW) systems 145 4.10 Conclusions 155 4.11 References 156 Part II Development of stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems and energy storage technology 163 5 Stand-alone wind energy systems 165 D. Wood, University of Newcastle, Australia and P. Freere, Monash University, Australia 5.1 Introduction 165 5.2 Stand-alone wind energy systems 166 5.3 Small wind turbine technology 170 5.4 Control and electronics 177 5.5 Stand-alone power systems 183 5.6 Further aspects of system sizing 185 5.7 Conclusions 188 5.8 References 189 6 Hybrid wind–diesel energy systems 191 G. Bhuvaneswari and R. Balasubramanian, Indian Institute of Technology (Delhi), India 6.1 Introduction 191 6.2 Overview of wind–diesel generation system 192 6.3 Wind turbine sizing in a hybrid wind–diesel scheme 194 6.4 Wind–diesel systems: design considerations 195 6.5 Components of a hybrid wind–diesel system 197 6.6 Control strategies for wind–diesel generation systems 199 6.7 Modelling and simulation of wind–diesel systems 207 6.8 Conclusions 211 6.9 Future trends 213 6.10 References 214 7 Hybrid wind–photovoltaic energy systems 216 G. Notton, University of Corsica, France 7.1 Introduction 216 7.2 Renewable energy resources and their potential 216 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 viii Contents 7.3 Design and confi guration of a wind–photovoltaic (PV) hybrid energy system 226 7.4 Modelling and simulation of a wind–photovoltaic (PV) hybrid energy system 227 7.5 Sizing and optimization of a wind–photovoltaic (PV) hybrid energy system 239 7.6 Wind–photovoltaic (PV) hybrid energy system: case studies 242 7.7 Future trends 247 7.8 Conclusions 248 7.9 References 248 7.10 Nomenclature 251 8 Hybrid wind–hydrogen energy systems 254 T. Tsoutsos, Technical University of Crete, Greece 8.1 Introduction 254 8.2 Design of wind electrolysis production systems 255 8.3 Design of hydrogen storage systems 260 8.4 Optimization of wind–hydrogen power systems 263 8.5 Environmental impact assessment of wind–hydrogen systems 267 8.6 Market potential and barriers for wind–hydrogen systems 272 8.7 Future trends 274 8.8 Sources of further information and advice 279 8.9 References 279 8.10 Abbreviations 281 9 Hybrid wind–hydropower energy systems 282 O. A. Jaramillo, O. Rodríguez-Hernández and A. Fuentes-Toledo, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico 9.1 Introduction 282 9.2 The need to couple wind–hydropower systems (WHPS) 283 9.3 Different types of wind–hydropower systems (WHPS) 284 9.4 Research and development of wind–hydropower systems (WHPS) (modelling/simulation and evaluation experience) 302 9.5 Benefi ts and limitations of wind–hydropower systems (WHPS) 310 9.6 Different operational policies and techniques for isolated grids 314 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Contents ix 9.7 Environmental impacts of wind–hydropower systems (WHPS) 315 9.8 The economics of wind–hydropower systems (WHPS) 316 9.9 Conclusions 318 9.10 Acknowledgements 319 9.11 References 320 10 Electro-chemical energy storage technologies for wind energy systems 323 M. Skyllas-Kazacos, University of New South Wales, Australia 10.1 Introduction 323 10.2 Off-grid or remote power systems 324 10.3 Wind–diesel grids 326 10.4 Large grid-connected wind farms 328 10.5 Energy storage 329 10.6 Fundamentals of electrochemical cells 329 10.7 Types of electrochemical energy storage technologies 335 10.8 Electrochemical capacitors (EC) 335 10.9 Fuel cells 336 10.10 Lead–acid battery 339 10.11 Nickel–metal hydride batteries 343 10.12 Li ion battery 344 10.13 Metal–air battery 346 10.14 Sodium–sulphur (NaS) battery 347 10.15 The zero emissions battery research activity (ZEBRA) battery 350 10.16 Flow batteries 352 10.17 Zn/Br battery 354 10.18 All-vanadium redox battery (G1 VB) 357 10.19 Vanadium bromide redox battery (G2 V/Br) 361 10.20 Summary 362 10.21 References 363 11 Flywheel energy storage technologies for wind energy systems 366 A. Ruddell, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK 11.1 Introduction 366 11.2 Flywheel design and construction 368 11.3 Features and limitations of fl ywheel storage technology 375 11.4 Technology status of fl ywheel storage technology 377 11.5 Application of fl ywheel storage technology 383 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010