Serica - Da Qin Gosciwit Malinowski, Aleksander Parori, Bartlomiej Sz. Szmoniewski (eds.) Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk Instytut Konfucjusza w Uniwersytecie Wrodawskim Instytut Studiow Klasycznych, Srodziemnomorskich i Orientalnych Uniwersytetu Wrodawskiego Serica - Da Qin Studies in Archaeology, Philology and History of Sino-Western Relations (Selected Problems) Gosciwit Malinowski, Aleksander Parori, Bartlomiej Sz. Szmoniewski (eds.) Wroclaw 2012 Copyright © 2012 All Rights Reserved All papers are copyright to their authors, Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Instytut Konfucjusza w Uniwersytecie Wroclawskim & Instytut Studiow Klasycznych, Srodziemnomorskich i Orientalnych Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego This volume has been reviewed by the Editorial Board of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology Polish Academy of Sciences Members of the Editorial Board: Prof. Andrzej Janeczek (president), Prof. Miroslawa Drozd-Piasecka, Prof. Dariusz Glowka, Prof. Jolanta Kowalska, Dr. Malgorzata Mogielnicka, Prof. Witold Swi^toslawski, Prof. Piotr Taracha Translations and Lingustic Consultation: Marlena Lis, Violetta Marzec Layout: Joanna Wagner-Glowinska Photo and cover design: Bartlomiej Szymon Szmoniewski The cover motive of the book is a fragment of the Map of Mediaeval Commerce Asia from Historical Atlas, by William R. Shepherd, New York 1923 and the photo of the Tiger-and-camel plaque from a horse harness (Han Dynasty) preserved in Wang Zhaojun Museum’s Complex, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China First edition Wroclaw 2012 ISBN 83-978-62584-40-6 GlЧГ WYDAWNICTW(\ s.c. Wydawnictwo GAJT 1991 s.c., ul. Kuznicza 11-13, Wroclaw www.gajt.pl Table of contents Gosciwit Malinowski, Aleksander Paron, Bartlomiej Sz. Szmoniewski Introduction 7 I Silk Road and its Cultural Influence 11 Gosciwit Malinowski Origin of the name Seres 13 Svetlana Sharapova Beyond the Silk Road: cultural identity of the Iron Age forest-steppe population of the Trans-Urals and Western Siberia 27 Bartlomiej Sz. Szmoniewski The Byzantine coins on the Silk Road - some comments 41 II China and West: Artistic Inspirations 51 Hanna Urbanska Between India and China. Some stories about the moon hare 53 Marta Steiner Reading of traditional Chinese theatre (xiqu) in Western culture 63 III Perceiving of the Other 69 Aleksander Paroti The picture of the Scythians in History by Herodotus and the Xiongnu in Shiji by Sima Qian. An attempt at comparison 71 Sergey A. Yatsenko Sogdian Costume in Chinese and Sogdian Art of the 6th-8th centuries 101 IV Materials from the Maiachnyi Bugor Cemetery, Russia 115 Anna A. Mamonova, Anastasia К Savelova Dress complex of the i3th-i4th centuries A.D. from burial 51 of the Maiachnyi Bugor II cemetery in the Astrakhan region 117 Olga Orfinskaya, Olga Lantratova Female costume of the Golden Horde time from burial 93 of the Maiachnyi Bugor I cemetery in the Astrakhan region 123 Vadim G. Rudakov, Tatyana V. Sidorova Two rich female burials of the Golden Horde epoch in the Maiachnyi Bugor cemetery 135 Authors 143 Gosciwit Malinowski, Aleksander Paron, Bartlomiej Sz. Szmoniewski Introduction Cultural relations between the Central Kingdom and Europe is a topic well set in the world academic literature (less well set in Polish); nevertheless, one can still find new and inspiring meaning in it. The evidence of it are the texts collected in this volume. They exemplify such con­ tacts and show the still growing interest of scholars representing various disciplines in China and their impact on other cultures. The increasing popularity of such studies is a fully understand­ able phenomenon. Globalisation and accompanying phenomena caused the world to have grown considerably smaller in the perception of a modern man. Communing with things alien, foreign and exotic has become an element of our everyday life. Experience obtained during such contacts also determine the questions we pose concerning the past. The need for reflection on the nature of relations between the countries of the West with the Far East in the old, pre-industrial epoch is becoming obvious. Such an idea motivated the organisers of the interdisciplinary conference entitled Serica-Da Qin. Over 2000 years of Sino-Western relations. The meeting was held from 21 to 23 October 2009, in Wroclaw, and was organised by the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Classical, Mediterranean and Oriental Studies of the University of Wroclaw, and the Confucius Institute of the University of Wroclaw. The subject matter of the papers presented during the conference corresponded to the time perspective widely marked in the title1. Nevertheless, several questions connected with the issue of relations between the eastern and western ends of Eurasia, lasting a few thousand years, were not discussed2. The general reflection on the nature of those relations was not discussed either, fully deliberately. In the face of enormousness and ambiguity of the issue, such an action would have been definitely premature. Conference organisers chose to aim at a more modest objective which was initiating research on significant issues, though not sufficiently frequently addressed in Polish conditions3. Reflecting on them should be of interdisciplinary character from the very beginning, thus the presence of representatives of various disciplines of the humanities, mainly archaeology, philology and history, among conference participants. 1 The conference commenced with the paper by Alexey Kovalev (Chemurchek Culture as a Result of Earliest Migration of Megalithic People from Western Europe to Chinese Altay), devoted to the Prehistory, which unfortunately has not been included in this volume. Marta Steiner in her reflection concerning the European perception of the traditional Chinese theatre referred to the times of Bertold Brecht. 2 This volume does not contain three more presentations submitted for the conference by Nadezhda Yu. Vishnevskaya (Twin Pishes Image in the Ceramic Dish from Samarkand), Aydogy Kurbanov (Turkestan on the Silk Road) and Mikhail V Gorelik (Mongols, Cumans and Yases. Interactions Reflected in the Costume). 3 Not accidentally was “Serica Da Qin” conference the first academic meeting co-organised by the newly cre­ ated Confucius Institute at the University of Wroclaw (inauguration date 12.2008). 8 Serica - Da Qin Therefore, we hope that the volume presented now to the readers will become a springboard for further research. The papers included in it, though sometimes significantly expanded in com­ parison to versions presented during the conference, emphasise merely selected issues from such a vast subject matter as relations between China and countries of the West. Proper names includ­ ed in the title suggest primary interest in the relation between the farthest ends of the Eurasian continent, since Serica is a Greek-Roman term denoting the land located in the remote East and inhabited by the Seres people. The ability to produce silk, attributed to them allows for identify­ ing them with the ancient Chinese. On the other hand, Da Qin was a term that, in the ancient Central Kingdom, denoted the remote land in the West the capital of which was An-du (the City of Peace). With time, both literary traditions tend to create an ideal, utopian vision of the distant land and its inhabitants. Relations between both civilisations can therefore be understood as direct contacts, influences and inspirations. Such a research perspective is present in some of the papers included in this volume4. However, influences brought about by the Silk Road are no less important. They must have affected the lands lying at both ends of the great trade route, as well as communities residing along its course, e.g. inhabitants of the so-called Great Steppe. The latter type of influences is indicated by the papers included in the first thematic section of this volume. It opens with a study by Gosciwit Malinowski entitled Origin of the name Seres, which is of panoramic character. From numerous details, the Autor built in it the horizon of knowledge concerning the Seres people in ancient Greek and Latin sources. Plentiful mentions were quoted which the Author accompanied with an elaborate commentary, and made an at­ tempt to locate the area to which that ethnonym was applied. Its frequent application in Greek and Roman literary tradition makes the modern reader realise the extent of interest in remote and mysterious territories in Asia in the Mediterranean world during the late Hellenistic and earlz Roman period. Acquiring knowledge concerning the lands of the Far and Middle East was closely related to the import of luxurious goods, especially silk the demand for which constantly increased in Europe. On the basis of chronological analysis of the occurrence of the ethnonym Seres in the antique world, Gosciwit Malinowski distinguishes 4 stages of its development: from the ist half of the 2nd century BC, i.e. a direct meeting of Greeks with the Chera from southern India, till ca. 20th BC, when the Seres were commonly identified with the “silk people”. The issue of the Silk Road as a medium through which cultural values and models were spread, was addressed by Svetlana Sharapova in the article entitled Beyond the Silk Road: cultural identity of the Iron Age forest-steppe population of the Trans-Urals and Western Siberia. The author presented probable cultural influences which, in the Iron Age, reached by means of the Silk Road the area dominated by the peoples of the Sargat culture. During the discussed period, their settle­ ment covered considerable area of the trans-Urals forest-steppe zone. The scientist draws attention to the complexity of the cultural tradition in the pre-literate societies, emphasizes the signifi­ cance of archaeological finds against this background. Artefacts discovered in burials (elements of clothes, jewellery, weapons in various configurations) confirm the advance process of forming the elites of the Sargat culture. Among the items distinguishing this social group artefacts which found their way to the trans-Urals zone via the Silk Road are predominant. Svetlana Sharapova favours the hypothesis that, despite a considerable distance from the main thoroughfare of the famous trade route, the Sargat culture to a great extent was formed under its influence. Therefore, the Silk Road favoured not only spreading objects of prestigious character, but first of all ideas which might have had impact on establishing cultural identity. The first thematic section closes with the article by Bartlomiej Sz. Szmoniewski entitled The Byzantine coins on the Silk Road - Some comments. The scholar discussed the issue of the presence See the second thematic section, devoted to artistic inspirations. Gosciwit Malinowski, Aleksander Paron, Bartlomiej Sz. Szmoniewski - Introduction 9 of Byzantine coins discovered along the whole length of the Silk Road from the lands of the pres­ ent-day Turkmenistan to China. He presented the most essential views encountered in the litera­ ture of the subject concerning the origin of the inflow of Byzantine coins and bracteates, and briefly discussed interpretations of their function in Central Asia. He pointed out the lack of an overall per­ spective on the issue which influences the complex interpretation of the phenomenon. B.Sz. Szmo­ niewski inclines to the concept of non-monetary character of Byzantine coins and bracteates discov­ ered in Central Asia, considering them to be tokens of prestige. Byzantine coins and their imitations were exotic objects from “distant lands”, and their possession could have been one of many elements distinguishing their owner in a given community, both during his life and after death. The next thematic section, concerning artistic inspirations, starts with an article by Hanna Urbariska, entitled Between India and China. Some stories about the Moon Hare. It is devoted to the occurrence of a celestial body motif - the moon in the literary tradition of ancient India (Rig- Veda, Brahmans, Upanishads, Jataka) and in the ancient Chinese poetry (Li Tai Bo, Qu Yuan, Dong Tao Xing). Elements of the moon representation were presented in detail, e.g.: the shape of its visible face, its colour, relations with other atmospheric phenomena (e.g. rain). Comparing individual literary motifs concerning the moon, the author reaches the conclusion, that between India (western centre) and China (eastern centre) an extensive cultural exchange took place which mostly involved symbolic contents derived from a complex system of beliefs. Marta Steiner in her text entitled Reading of traditional Chinese theatre (xiqu) in Occidental Culture, focuses on discussing the knowledge of the traditional Chinese musical theatre xiqu in Europe. First western mentions concerning that artistic phenomenon come from the 18th century. In the mid-i8th century the first theatre performance took place in London. The author quotes the evidence of lack of understanding or appreciation for xiqu displayed by Europeans, particularly in the sphere of music which was so different from the familiar stylistics and formal structure. Many years had to pass, before a real Chinese drama could be seen again and appreciated on the European turf, which took place in Moscow in 1935. The consequence of that presentation was a meeting of Berthold Brecht, keenly interested in Chinese theatre, and Mei Lanfang, the mas­ ter of the Beijing opera and at the same time a star of the Moscow performance. The German dramatist wanted to depart from the classical Aristotle drama, by employing the effect of oddity from the Chinese art of acting. An inevitable consequence of relations between communities representing different cultures is creating the image of “an alien”. That issue was the subject of analysis in two articles making up the next, third thematic section. It starts with a study by Aleksander Parori, entitled The picture of the Scythians in “History” by Herodotus and the Xiongnu in “Shiji” by Sima Qian. The Autor attempted to compare the image of an alien, created in two texts, canonic for the Chinese and European historiography. Such a comparative study (the Author is neither the first nor the last scholar who decided to make it) is justified by several circumstances, among which the most important is the position that both historians held in their native literary traditions, a specific historic condition of the communities in which they lived, and finally a particular character of the Scythian and Xiongnu cultures. Both peoples led nomadic lifestyles and were described as such by Herodotus and Sima Qian. Their fundamental cultural difference did not contribute to creating stereotypical characteristics of the steppe dwellers. On the contrary, as A. Parori claims, both writers created the image of the nomads based not on othering, but on understanding their world. Herodotus and Sima Qian emphasised, that nomadism of the Scythians and the Xiongnu was the guarantee of their independence. The Chinese historian reaches the conclusion that the nomadic life style makes the cultural universe of the Xiongnu equal and complementary in relation to the Chinese. Herodotus did not go that far. His image of the Scythians seems to be greatly based on tensions and discrepancies. The Greek “father of history” appears to suspend them between the civilised and barbarian worlds, and between Asia and Europe. 10 Serica - Da Qin Closely related as far as topic is concerned, though based on different source material, is the article by Sergey Yatsenko, entitled Sogdian Costume in Chinese and Sogdian Art of the 6th-8th cen­ turies. The Author carries out a thorough comparative analysis of images of the Sogdians, avail­ able in iconographic representations and figure plastic arts from the area of Sogdiana and China. Those representations date back to the period from the mid-6th century to the mid-8th century CE. According to S. Yatsenko, because of the character of their professional activities (trade), the Sogdians must have stood out in the multi-ethnic Chinese society of the Tang period. In tradi­ tional societies costume informed about the social status, membership of a given ethnic group and was a kind of passport in foreign lands. The comparative analysis depicting differences in representations of the Sogdians in their homeland and outside its borders also yielded interesting results. Images discovered in the territory of the Chinese Empire differ from the ruling canon in Sogdiana. A greater freedom in the means of artistic expression can be observed as well as a more dogmatic attitude to details of representations. According to S. Yatsenko, such a state of affairs was significantly influenced by the cosmopolitan character of the Empire during the early Tang period, and the impact of Chinese tradition and expectations of the society among which they lived and worked. Three articles written by Vadim Rudakov, Tatiana Sidorova (Two rich female burials of the Golden Horde epoch in the Maiachnyi Bugor cemetery), Anna Mamonova, Anastasia V. Savelova, (Dress complex of the 13th-14th centuries A.D. from Burial 51 of the Maiachnyi Bugor II cemetery in the Astrakhan region) and Olga Orfinska, Olga Lantratova (Female costume of the Golden Horde time from burial 93 of the Maiachnyi Bugor I cemetery in the Astrakhan region of Russia) present interesting discoveries made recently in the cemetery in Maiachnyi Bugor I and II, in Astrakhan region. The discussed burials were dated to the i3th-i4th century, and are connected with the Golden Horde. Artefacts discovered in both rich sites provided a pretext for a wide compara­ tive analysis. Almost completely preserved textiles constitute a valuable base for reconstruction of clothes worn by women holding a high position in the social hierarchy of the Golden Horde. Grave 51 Maiachnyi Bugor II was analysed in the text by A. Mamonova and A. Savelova, and enriched with a documentation illustrating stages of a gown conservation since its discovery. The other burial 93 Maiachnyi Bugor I is discussed in the text by O. Orfinska and O. Lantratova. The Authors emphasise the unique character of the burial complex in which, for the first time, a complete outer garment of a woman from the Golden Horde, together with underwear, was discovered. A comparison of those two extremely interesting burial is enclosed in the text by V. Rudakov and T. Sidorova, accompanied by sketched reconstructions of two gowns. Garments found in the burials on the cemeteries in Maiachnyi Bugor I and II bear evidence of an interest­ ing synthesis of elements of female outfit, having their roots in diverse cultural traditions. Four main centres which may have served as sources of inspiration have been indicated: Mongolian, Chinese, Uyghur and Junjen (Jurchens). Cemeteries in Maiachnyi Bugor I and II, as indicated by unique grave finds, were a burial place for the members of the Golden Horde elites. The Authors of the last comparative text favour a partial ethnic interpretation of rich burials with the Junjen people, who were to have arrived in the area from the Far East as a consequence of Mongolian military actions. An indirect confirmation of the Far-East origin of the discussed burials were the observed funereal rituals, characteristic for the Buddhist burial ceremony. I Silk Road and its Cultural Influence