Master’s Thesis 2017 30 ECTS Faculty of Social Sciences Noragric William Derman Rural women in Afghanistan: a gendered approach to the right to water, participation and non- discrimination Karen Johanne Verne International Relations i “To be a human being is to be a purposeful agent” Anthony Giddens ii The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU). Eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric’s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master theses are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “International Environmental Studies”, “International Development Studies” and “International Relations”. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric. © Karen Johanne Verne, December 2017 [email protected] Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 67 23 00 00 Internet: https://www.nmbu.no/om/fakulteter/samvit/institutter/noragric iii Declaration I, Karen Johanne Verne, declare that this thesis is a result of my research investigations and findings. Sources of information other than my own have been acknowledged and a reference list has been appended. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for award of any type of academic degree. Signature…………………………………… Date………………………………………… iv Acknowledgments The respondents in Dahane-Shalege and Kakrag deserve my first and foremost gratitude. Through their narratives, these women opened up a key hole and let me peek into a small part of their daily lives in rural Afghanistan. Needless to say, my research would have been impossible without them and their stories, and I will never forget them, and always be thankful. I am also immensely grateful to the Norwegian Church Alliance – Kirkens Nødhjelp – in Afghanistan. They not only assisted me with selecting appropriate villages and respondents; they brought the women to CoAR’s field office in Kharbid, Ashtarlai, gave them lunch, and conducted and translated the interviews live with me in Oslo via a fickle telephone line. With their nuanced knowledge and cultural competence, Mr. Ahmad Assan, Mr. Ghulam Tariq, and in particular Ms. Mursal Abrar have been exceedingly helpful and friendly, and always ready to closing my many knowledge gaps. Moreover, I thank my two supervisors, who are partly responsible for my choice of topic due to their inspiring lectures on human rights, development, Afghanistan and fragility. Dr. William Derman and Mr. Karim Merchant deserve many thanks, also for their feedback and encouragements. Through their assistance, I know the thesis has improved enormously. And I believe Karim holds the speed record for answering emails! I am also indebted to other faculty, government officials in Kabul, and friends who have listened, given assistance, shared information, and suggested improvements: Gry Synnevåg, Mr. Ghulam Qader, Mr. Fahimullah Ziaee, Mr. Mamoon Khawar, Debbie Harrison, Niamh Ní Bhroin, and others. Last but not least, I thank my children Mathilde, Gustav Erik, and Martin, and especially my husband Terje, who has been my competent QA resource and ally, and performed (almost) all the daily tasks so that I could concentrate on my research. Karen v Abstract Afghanistan is a fragile, war-ravaged and mostly semi-arid country in which water is scarce and droughts are common. In many of the country’s 32,000 rural villages, Afghan women bear the responsibility for the households’ water. However, accessing water is often arduous and time-consuming. The available water may not even be safe – diarrhea due to contaminated water is ubiquitous. Through a case study among women in two rural communities in Ashtarlai, Daikundi, the research has investigated the agency displayed by these women regarding water management. Moreover, the Afghan state’s fulfillment of these women’s human rights – to water, participation and non-discrimination - has been analyzed and assessed. The research has revealed substantial differences regarding agency as well as access to water: In Kakrag, the Norwegian Church Alliance Afghanistan have implemented the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) program, which apart from easy access to safe water has enabled the creation of transformative and inclusive institutions. As a consequence, gendered stereotypes have weakened and women’s equal participation in water management has increased significantly. In Dahane-Shalege, there has been no WASH program, the water situation is destitute, and the women display no signs of agency in water management. The state of Afghanistan was found to have committed human rights violations by omissions, according to the International Covenant of Economic, Cultural and Social Rights (ICECSR): The right to water, participation, and equitability, but also the women’s right to health, livelihood, food, education, development and human dignity, even the right to life. Human rights theories, the concepts of indivisibility and interrelatedness of rights, as well as agency theory have been useful when assessing the women’s situation regarding water, equitability and participation. The research has contributed to understanding of the necessity of inclusive institutions in equalizing economic, social and cultural differences. vi Abbreviations AFN afghanis ARTF Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund CDC Community Development Council CCNPP The Citizens’ Charter National Priority Program CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CESCR The Committee of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights CoAR Coordination of Afghanistan Relief CRPD The Convention for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities DAACAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees P-RRD Provincial Rural Rehabilitation Department FP Facilitating partner GWP Global Water Partnership ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights IDA International Development Assistance IDP Internally Displaced Persons IO International Organization ICECSR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights IWMI International Water Management Institute JMP The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation LPCD Liter per capita per day MAIL Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock MEW Ministry of Energy and Water MRRD Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development MPH Ministry of Public Health vii MUS multiple-use water services NCA Norwegian Church Aid (“Kirkens Nødhjelp”) NCA-Afg Norwegian Church Aid Afghanistan NOK Norwegian kroner NRK Norsk Rikskringkasting NUG National Unity Government ODF Open Defecation Free OHCHR Office of the High Comissioner of Human Rights PAD Project Appraisal Document Ru-WatSIP Rural Water Supply, Sanitation and Irrigation Programme SDG Sustainable Development Goal UN The United Nations UNAMA United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNGA United Nations General Assembly UNGAR United Nations General Assembly Resolution WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene WC WASH Committee WUA Water Use Association viii List of figures and tables Table 1 The JMP water indicators Table 2 Respondents in Kakrag, WASH village Table 3 Respondents in Dahane-Shalege, non-WASH village Table 4 Main source of water according to district Figure 1 Average annual precipitation in Afghanistan Figure 2 Improved water in the rural areas Figure 3 Pre-WASH satisfaction Figure 4 Post-WASH satisfaction Figure 5 Disagreement with the water norm Figure 6 Perceptions of agency in water management Figure 7 Dissatisfaction with the government ix