The Archaeology o f Mediterranean Landscapes Series Editors Graeme Barker and David Mattingly 1. Reconstructing Past Population Trends in Mediterranean Europe (3000 BC - AD 1800) Edited by John Bintliff and Kostas Sbonias 2. Environmental Reconstruction in Mediterranean Landscape Archaeology Edited by Philippe Leveau, Kevin Walsh, Frédéric Trément and Graeme Barker 3. Geographical Information Systems and Landscape Archaeology Edited by Mark Gillings, David Mattingly and Jan van Dalen 4. Non-Destructive Techniques Applied to Landscape Archaeology Edited by Marinella Pasquinucci and Frédéric Trément 5. Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages Edited by Riccardo Francovich and Helen Patterson General Editors’ Introduction: The POPULUS Project Graeme Barker and David Mattingly This is one of five volumes being published by the provenancing and dating have led to the accumulation of a POPULUS project, a European research network funded wealth of new evidence on past settlement patterns. by the EU Human Capital and Mobility programme Potentially, therefore, the techniques of landscape (Contract ERB CHRXCT930305) to address a series of archaeology offer the best opportunity significantly to methodological issues in Mediterranean landscape advance our knowledge of European human demography in archaeology. pre-industrial times, c. 3000 BC-AD 1800. Despite this potential contribution of landscape archaeology, however, development has been uneven across Europe. In Mediterranean countries in particular, THE RESEARCH CONTEXT the traditional dominance of art historical approaches in Without a long historical perspective, research on archaeology, compounded by the strength of academic changing demographic patterns in modern day Europe boundaries in other disciplines, has mitigated against the can only assess the impact of recurrent or perennial development of an approach to landscape analysis and environmental and socio-economic aspects by constructing demographic modelling that by definition demands an hypothetical models. The more empirically-based such inter-disciplinary framework linking the natural and models are, the greater their relevance to contemporary social sciences. Fieldwork in landscape archaeology has situations. This is particularly true of the less been the exception, not the rule. Moreover, where industrialized regions of Mediterranean Europe, where pioneering research has taken place, each team has tended farming remains the principal economic focus and where to develop and use its own special methods (often the last decades have witnessed considerable migration of reflecting a particular national tradition of archaeological population to the cities or other more favoured economic research), with too little attention being paid to the regions. The problems facing these areas of the EU have necessity of achieving greater standardization of data an historic as well as a contemporary dimension and there sets. There are also specific problems relating to the is obvious importance in seeking to gain a clearer interpretation of the status, size and length of occupation understanding of their long-term demographic trends. of the many sites that have been discovered. Scientific Long-term demographic changes can be studied from techniques can assist in refining the data so that more many different perspectives and using many techniques, reliable demographic assessments can be made, but many including history and the natural and social sciences. interesting and important projects have not been able to Numerous factors can be advanced to explain population make use of the full range of scientific techniques because growth and contraction (economic, environmental, social), the appropriate expertise is not available at the regional but all research is hampered by the absence of detailed level. If landscape archaeology is to realize its potential to census records for much of the pre-modern period. contribute significantly to debates on long-term However, landscape archaeology - a constellation of demographic trends in Mediterranean Europe, it has to approaches and methodologies bridging the natural and overcome the present lack of agreement on approaches social sciences, applied to both rural and urban contexts - and methods that makes meaningful comparisons between has the potential to provide a major source of new regional data difficult or impossible. information on the longue durée of human settlement in Mediterranean Europe. In recent years advances in field survey and excavation techniques, air photography, remote THE POPULUS OBJECTIVES sensing, GIS (Geographical Information Systems), ceramic The aim of the POPULUS project, therefore, was to IV General Editors' Introduction: The POPULUS Project investigate the feasibility of establishing a common THE WORK PROGRAMME series of research goals and standards in Mediterranean landscape archaeology so as to advance the study of the The project started in January 1994 with the first meeting of ancient demography of the region on a broad the Steering Committee, composed of the coordinators in comparative front. A research network was established each of the partner universities. The Research Fellows were at five EU universities, each hosting a Working Party appointed through 1994: Leicester in January, Durham in and training a trans-national Research Fellow in a April, Aix-en-Provence in April, Siena from February, and specific sub-discipline within Landscape Archaeology, Pisa from June. The Working Parties met through 1994 and as follows: 1995, and the Research Fellows ’ training and field research were also undertaken during 1994 and 1995. In 1995 the ® Prof Graeme Barker (School of Archaeological Studies, project was expanded and strengthened with the addition of University of Leicester, UK) coordinated the overall a team from the Department of Archaeology at the project, and his colleague Dr David Mattingly co­ University of Ljubljana in Slovenia coordinated by Dr ordinated the work of Working Party 1, and the training Predrag Novaković, under a supplementary EU grant of the Research Fellow, in Geographical Information (Contract ERBCIPD940624). The Colloquia took place in Systems; the autumn of 1995 and spring of 1996, the papers being ® Dr John Bintliff (Department of Archaeology, Uni­ revised by their authors through 1996, and then being edited versity of Durham, UK) coordinated the work of at the five universities by the local coordinators and finally Working Party 2, and the training of the Research at Leicester (including several that were also translated into Fellow, in Demographic Modelling; English after the main editing) by the General Editors ® Prof Philippe Leveau (Centre Camille Julian, Université during 1997. de Provence, France) coordinated the work of Working Party 3, and the training of the Research Fellow, in Geoarchaeology; THE WORKING PARTIES ® Prof Riccardo Francovich (Dipartimento di Archeo- logia e Storia delle Arti, Università degli Studi di The Working Parties were deliberately set up in terms of Siena, Italy) coordinated the work of Working Party personnel from the network and from other universities and 4, and the training of the Research Fellow, in Field- institutions to reflect the diversity of Community traditions survey Methodologies, with particular emphasis on and methodologies in each of the five main areas addressed. ceramic recording, provenancing and dating; Working Party 1 had members from Britain, France, ® Prof Marinella Pasquinucci (Dipartimento di Scienze Greece, Holland, Italy, and Slovenia. Working Party 2 had Storiche del Mondo Antico, Università degli Studi di members from Britain, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Pisa, Italy) coordinated the work of Working Party 5, Italy, and Slovenia. Working Party 3 had members from and the training of the Research Fellow, in Remote Britain, France, Italy, Spain and Slovenia. Working Party 4 Sensing, with particular emphasis on non-invasive had members from Britain, France, Holland, Italy, Spain techniques of archaeological survey. and Slovenia. Working Party 5 had members from Britain, France, Greece, Italy and Slovenia. The Working Parties were to bring together relevant expertise to define key issues in the methodologies of their research area, with a particular emphasis on the THE RESEARCH FELLOWS comparison of different research traditions and methods in different European countries. Each Working Party Under the terms of the Human Capital and Mobility was to organise a Colloquium that would review programme, the Research Fellows were to be appointed methodologies and demonstrate best practice. The from EU countries other than the designated place of work. Research Fellows were to assist in the organisation of This requirement of the Human Capital and Mobility the Colloquia, and also to undertake research within programme was also seen as an extremely positive their area of expertise and present their results to the contribution to the goals of POPULUS, because the relevant Colloquium. In addition, the Research Fellows mobility of young archaeologists from one Community and other members of the network were to collaborate country to another was an important part of the process of in a programme of joint fieldwork to demonstrate the integrating the different European intellectual and practical integration of improved and standardised methodological traditions in landscape archaeology. The methodologies in landscape archaeology. The principal partner institutions proposed individuals where suitable outcome of POPULUS was to be the publication of the qualified personnel were available, and the posts were also five colloquia, including the results of the joint advertized widely through EU universities, museums and fieldwork, together with a technical manual identifying state archaeological services. The Leicester Research best practice. Fellow in GIS was Dr Jan van Dalen, a Dutch national with a first and second degree at Leiden University, who was General Editors' Introduction: The POPULUS Project v working for the Dutch Archaeological Service on a research that is published as separate Colloquia programme developing GIS for predictive modelling of contributions and/or in publications on specific projects. site distributions to aid their strategies of heritage management. The Durham Research Fellow in Demographic THE POPULUS COLLOQUIA Modelling was Dr Kostas Sbonias, a Greek national with a first degree at Athens University in archaeology, a PhD The five Colloquia took place on 13-16 October (Aix), from Heidelberg University, and extensive postgraduate 6-8 November (Leicester), 25-26 November (Durham), experience in Greek landscape archaeology projects. The 1-3 December (Siena) and 4-6 December (Pisa) in 1995. Aix-en-Provence Research Fellow in Geoarchaeology was Each Working Party coordinator was successful in Dr Kevin Walsh, a British national with a first degree in obtaining limited additional funds locally (university, archaeology and geography at Lampeter University and an local administration etc) or nationally to augment the MA and a PhD in environmental archaeology at Leicester POPULUS budget for the travel and accommodation University. The Siena Research Fellow in Field Survey costs of speakers, and the Project Coordinator also Methodologies was a British national, Dr Helen Patterson, secured a grant of £500 from the British Academy who had a first degree in archaeology at Reading towards the travel costs of a speaker from the US University and a PhD in ceramic analysis at Sheffield attending the Leicester and Durham Colloquia. The University, the latter with a primary focus on the analysis Colloquia were structured to enhance debate amongst the of medieval ceramics from a field survey and excavation different EU traditions of landscape archaeology. All project in Italy. The Pisa Research Fellow in Remote papers were pre-circulated, and the main focus for each Sensing was a French national, Dr Frédéric Trément, who paper at most of the Colloquia was a presentation not by had a first degree in archaeology at the University of Lille the authors of the paper but by a discussant from another and a PhD at the University of Aix-en-Provence in country, followed by a brief response by the author(s) and landscape archaeology. The Ljubljana Research Fellow then an open debate amongst the Colloquium participants. was a Greek national, Mrs Helene Simoni, with a first All five colloquia were characterized by vigorous but degree in classical archaeology at the University of Athens positive and friendly debate, and the papers were re­ and an MA in Landscape Studies at the University of written by their authors in the light of the discussions and Leicester. Her MA had included training in GIS, and she the general themes and issues that emerged. was appointed to Ljubljana to receive further training, and then to undertake research, in GIS. The Research Fellows prepared discussion documents THE POPULUS VOLUMES for each meeting of their respective Working Party. For the first meetings they gathered information about current The five Colloquia are being published as a series by archaeological research in the Mediterranean relevant to Oxbow Books under the title Mediterranean Landscapes, the activities of their Working Party, to help define the key with Graeme Barker and David Mattingly as Series issues for the subsequent Working Party meetings and the Editors. The five volumes are: 1. Reconstructing Past themes of the Colloquia, and to suggest names of Population Trends in Mediterranean Europe (3000 BC - appropriate speakers. In subsequent meetings they AD 1800) edited by John Bintliff and Kostas Sbonias; 2. reported further developments in this data-gathering Environmental Reconstruction in Mediterranean Land­ exercise, and also reported on their own field research. scape Archaeology edited by Philippe Leveau, Frédéric Supported by their supervisor (the regional coordinator), Trément, Kevin Walsh and Graeme Barker; 3. they were charged with the primary responsibility for the Geographical Information Systems and Landscape organization of their respective Colloquia including the Archaeology edited by Mark Gillings, David Mattingly soliciting of papers, the circulation of pre-prints to and Jan van Dalen; 4. Non-Destructive Techniques discussants, the running of the Colloquia, and liaison with Applied to Landscape Archaeology edited by Marinella speakers afterwards to secure finalized versions of papers. Pasquinucci and Frédéric Trément; and 5. Extracting They also undertook as much of the preliminary editing of Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages edited by the proceedings as possible before the cessation of their Riccardo Francovich and Helen Patterson. The POPULUS contracts. Dr Trément in particular undertook much of the volumes bring together a remarkable array of EU expertise editing of the Aix as well as the Pisa Colloquia after the Aix in current approaches to Mediterranean landscape Research Fellow left the project before the end of his archaeology: the papers present the researches of 30 contract for another post, Dr Trément transfering from Pisa British, 4 German, 6 Dutch, 27 French, 4 Greek, 35 Italian, to Leicester from February to June 1995 for this purpose. 8 Slovenian, and 6 Spanish scholars, as well as those of 11 Each Research Fellow contributed an introductory paper to Canadian/US scholars working in the region. They bridge their Colloqium identifying the major strengths and the disciplinary and national boundaries that have weakness of current methodologies in their area of mitigated against the development of a coherent specialism, and has provided the supplementary information methodology in Mediterranean landscape archaeology. for the Manual of Best Practice. They also undertook field The contents are as follows: VI General Editors’ Introduction: The POPULUS Project 1. Reconstructing Past Population Trends in Mediterranean Europe (3000 BC AD 1800) - edited by John Bintliff and Kostas Sbonias ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND DEMOGRAPHY: 1. Introduction to issues in demography and survey. Kostas Sbonias. 2. Regional field surveys and population cycles. John Bintliff. 3. Counting people in an artefact-poor landscape: the Langadas case, Macedonia, Greece. Stelios Andreou and Kostas Kotsakis. 4. Demographic trends from archaeological survey: case studies from the Levant and Near East. Tony Wilkinson. 5. Archaeological proxy-data for demographic reconstructions: facts, factoids or fiction? John Chapman. 6. An attempt at the demographic interpretation of long-term settlement processes in the prehistory of Slovenia: the case of the ‘archaeological map of Slovenia'. Predrag Novakovié. 7. Prospection archéologique et démographie en Provence: approche paléodémographique de la Rive Occidentale de VEtang de Berre sur la longue durée. Frédéric Trément. 8. Demography and Romanization in central Italy. Franco Cambi. 9. Beyond historical demography: the contribution of archaeological survey. Simon Stoddart. INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES: 10. Chance and the human population: population growth in the Mediterranean. Ezra Zubrow and Jennifer Robinson. 11. The potential of historical demography for regional studies. Malcolm Smith. 12. Clearing away the cobwebs: a critical perspective on historical sources for Roman population history. Tim Parkin. 13. The population of Roman Italy in town and country. Elio Lo Cascio. 14. Documentary sources for the history of medieval settlements in Tuscany. Maria Ginatempo and Andrea Giorgi. 15. The Ottoman Imperial Registers: central Greece and northern Bulgaria in the 15th-19th centuries - the demographic development of two areas compared. Machiel Kiel. 16. Investigating the interface between regional survey, historical demography andpalaeodemography. Kostas Sbonias. 17. The contribution of palaeoanthropology to regional demographic history. C. A. Marlow. 18. Problems and prospects in palaeodemography. Claude Masset. 19. Relating cemetery studies to regional survey: Rocca San Silvestro, a case study. Riccardo Francovich and Kathy Gruspier. 20. Counting heads: an overview. Jeremy Paterson. 2. Environmental Reconstruction in Mediterranean Landscape Archaeology edited by Philippe Leveau, Frédéric Trément, Kevin Walsh and Graeme Barker 1. Mediterranean landscape archaeology and environmental reconstruction. K. Walsh 2. Landscape archaeology and reconstruction of the Mediterranean environment based on palynology. S. Bottema 3. A computerized database for the palynological recording of human activity in the Mediterranean basin. V. Andrieu, E. Brugiapaglia, R. Cheddadi, M. Reille and J.-L. de Beaulieu 4. Reconstructing vegetation and landscapes in the Mediterranean: the contribution of anthracology. J.-L. Vernet 5. Some examples of climatic reconstruction in the Mediterranean using dendroclimatology. F. Guibal 6. Geomorphological techniques in Mediterranean landscape archaeology. A. G. Brown 7. L’apport de la micromorphologie des sols à la reconstitution des paléopaysages (Application au bassin méditerranéen pour la période 3000 av. J. C. - 1800 ap. J. C. ). N. Fédoroff et Marie-Agnès Courty 8. Reconstructing past soil environments in the Mediterranean region. R. S. Shiel 9. Energy dispersive X-ray micro-analysis and the geochemistry of soil sediments. D. D. Gilbertson and J. P. Grattan 10. Searching for the ports of Troy. E. Zangger, M. Timpson, S. Yazvenko and H. Leiermann 11. Case studies from the Pontine region in central Italy on settlement and environmental change in the first millennium BC. P. Attema, J. Delvigne and B. J. Haagsma 12. Karst dolinas: evidence of population pressure and exploitation of agricultural resources in karstic landscapes. P. Novakovic, H. Simoni and B. Music 13. Archeologia ambientale padana: un caso di studio - la pianura padana centrale tra il Bronzo medio ed il Bronzo finale (xvi-xiii sec. a. C.). M. Cremaschi. 14. Human impacts and natural characteristics of the ancient ports of Marseille and Fos, Provence, southern France. C. Vella, C. Morhange and M. Provansal 15. Developing a methodological approach to the evolution of field systems in the middle Rhône valley. J.-F. Berger and C. Jung General Editors’ Introduction: The POPULUS Project vii 16. Progradación fluvial y cambios en la línea de costa en época histórica en el Golfo de Valencia (España). P. Carmona 17. The integration of historical, archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data at the regional scale: the Vallée des Baux, southern France. P. Leveau 18. The integration of historical, archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data at the regional scale: the Étang de Berre, southern France. F. Trément 19. Geoarchaeology in Mediterranean landscape archaeology: Concluding comments. G. Barker and J. Bintliff. 3. Geographical Information Systems and Landscape Archaeology edited by Mark Gillings, David Mattingly and Jan van Dalen 1. Introduction Mark Gillings and David Mattingly. GIS AND ARCHAEOLOGY 2. Geographical Information Systems: today and tomorrow? Peter F. Fisher. GIS AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORY 3. GIS and landscapes of perception Robert Witcher 4. Cartography and landscape perception: a case study from central Italy Peter Attema. THEORY AND METHOD 5. Regional survey and GIS: the Boeotia Project Mark Gillings and Kostas Sbonias 6. Towards a methodology for modelling surface survey data: the Sangro Valley Project Gary Lock, Tyler Bell and John Lloyd 7. Between spaces: interpolation in archaeology Jennifer M. Robinson and Ezra Zubrow. GIS AND FIELD SURVEY DATA 8. GIS-based analysis of the population trends on the island of Brač in central Dalmatia Zoran Stančič and Vincent Gaffney 9. Analyzing Rome's hinterland Martin Belcher, Andrew Harrison and Simon Stoddart 10. Reconstructing the population history of the Albegna Valley and Ager Cosanus, Tuscany, Italy, in the Etruscan period Philip Perkins. DEVELOPING TECHNIQUES AND APPROACHES: 11. Probability modelling: a Bayesian and a geometric example Jan van Dalen 12. Multispectral classification of satellite images Krištof Oštir, Zoran Stančič and Majda Trušnovec 13. Geographic Information Systems and archaeology: methodological aspects of the presentation and display of results Javier Baena Preysler, Concepcion Blasco, Javier Espiago, Alberto Rio 4. Non-Destructive Techniques Applied to Landscape Archaeology edited by Marinella Pasquinucci and Frédéric Trément 1. Uapport des méthodes non destructives à Tanalyse des sites archéologiques: le point de vue de Tarchéologue. F. Trément. REMOTE SENSING 2. Télédétection et archéologie. Concepts fondamentaux, état de Tart et exemples. B. Marcolongo and E. Barisano. 3. Environmental studies through active and passive airborne remote sensing systems. R. M. Cavalli, C. M. Marino and S. Pignatti. 4. Metodi di telerilevamento in archeometria e nella diagnostica non ìnvasiva. A. Tonelli. 5. Aerial archaeology around the Mediterranean. B. Jones. 6. Détection aérienne des camps néolithiques en Languedoc occidental. J. Vaquer. 7. La restitution des parcellaires anciens et des limitations antiques à partir des techniques de la télédétection et du traitement d’images. D. Charraut and F. Favory. 8. Digital classification and visualization systems of archaeological landscapes. M. Forte. GEOPHYSICS 9. The IGAPS Project: integrated geophysical acquisition and processing system for cultural heritage. D. Patella, S. Piro, L. Versino, F. Cammarano, R. Di Maio and P. Mauriello. 10. La me sure de la résistivité (ou de la conductivité) électrique du sol en prospection archéologique. A. Hesse. 11. Magnetic techniques applied to archaeological survey. D. Jordan. viii General Editors' Introduction: The POPULUS Project 12. Radar (G. P. R. ) methods for historical and archaeological surveys. E. Finzi and S. Piro. 13. Seismic methods. L. Sambuelli and G. P. Deidda. 14. The role of gravity surveys in archaeology. M. Di Filippo, T. Ruspandini and B. Toro. 15. Acoustic methods in archaeology: prospecting on a site ofParco Marturanum. G. B. Cannelli, E. D’Ottavi and A. Alippi. 16. Integration of high resolution georadar and geoelectrical methods: detection of subsurface shallow bodies. S. Piro. 17. Filtrage numérique des données géophysiques. J. Tabbagh. GEOCHEMICALS 18. Soil phosphate survey. J. Taylor. 19. Soil geochemistry and artefact scatters in Boeotia, Greece. J. N. Rimmington. SURFACE COLLECTION OF ARTEFACTS 20. The concepts of ‘site’ and ‘off-site1 archaeology in surface artefact survey. J. Bintliff 21. The comparison of surface and stratified artefact assemblages. M. Millett 22. Définition ou hiérarchisation des sites? Approche intégrée en Gaule méditerranéenne. F. Favory and C. Raynaud. INTEGRATED STUDIES 23. The Pisa territory project. E. Marchisio, M. Pasquinucci, E. Pranzini and G. Vigna Guidi. 24. Two examples of using combined prospecting techniques. D. Grosman. 25. Expérience de croisement de méthodes de prospectìon sur le site des Girardes à Lapalud (Vaucluse, France). F. Trément (avec la collaboration de P. Clogg, P. Druelle, G. Ducomet, J.-P. Mariat and J. Taylor). GENERAL ISSUES 26. Du site au réseau: archéologie, géographie spatiale ou géographie historique. Ph. Leveau. 5. Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages edited by Riccardo Francovich and Helen Patterson INTRODUCTION 1. Extracting meaning from ploughsoil assemblages: assessments of the past, strategies for the future. S. Alcock. METHODOLOGY 2. Methods of collection, recording and quantification. D. Mattingly 3. Cultural depositional processes and post-depositional problems. J. Taylor, with comments by Peter van Dommelen. 4. Ceramics and the site: is survey enough? Vincent Gaffney. 5. What are we counting for? Elizabeth Fentress. 6. Dating, quantifying and utilizing pottery assemblages from surface survey. Martin Millett. 7. The visibility of sites and the interpretation of field survey results: towards an analysis of incomplete distributions. Nicola Terrenato. 8. Quando i campi hanno pochi significati da estrarre: visibilità archeologica, storia istituzionale, multi-stage work. Franco Cambi. 9. Prospection et chronologie: de la quantification du temps au modèle de peuplement. Methodes appliquées au secteur des étangs de Saint-Blaise (Bouches-du-Rhone) France. Frédéric Trément. 10. Discussion. Martin Millett. CERAMIC STUDIES IN MEDITERRANEAN SURVEY 11. The current state of prehistoric ceramic studies in Mediterranean survey, Caroline Malone and Simon Stoddart 12. The current state of Roman ceramic studies in Mediterranean survey, or, handling pottery from surveys. John W. Hayes. 13. The current state of early medieval and medieval ceramic studies in Mediterranean survey. Helen Patterson. CASE STUDIES: 14. Surface survey analysis of the copper ages site of La Pijotilla (Spain). Victor Hurtado. 15. On-site surface distributions and geophysics: the site of Rodik-Adjovscina. Božidar Slapšak, Branko Music, and Verena Perko 16. La ceramica preromana come indicatore di processi socio-economici: il caso delVItalia medio-tirrenica. Andrea Zifferaro, with comments by Alessandro Guidi. 17. Ceramic chronology and Roman rural settlement in the lower Guadalquivir Valley during the Augustan period. Simon Keay. General Editors' Introduction: The POPULUS Project ix 18. Terracotta and its territory: a tormented relationship. Franco Cambi. 19. The Adriatic Islands Project: contact, commerce and commercialization. Vincent Gaffney, Branco Kirigin, John W. Hayes, and Peter Leach. 20. De la fouille à la prospection, et retour: céramologie et hìstoire du peuplement dans la cité de Nimes. Claude Raynaud. 21. II rapporto fra superficie e sottosuolo; dal survey alio scavo: insediamento e circolazione ceramicafra VeX secolo nella Toscana centro-meridionale. Riccardo Francovich and Marco Valenti. 22. Reconstructing the classical landscape with figures: some interpretive explorations in North-West Keos. Todd Whitelaw. 23. Demographic trends: the contribution of regional survey data. John Bintliff and Kostas Sbonias. 24. Conclusion. Susan E. Alcock, Franco Cambi, Simon Keay, and Claude Raynaud. SCIENTIFIC OUTCOMES of the interactions between landscape and people, and the perceptions, choices and adaptations that have underpinned All five working groups in the POPULUS network were human actions, will need effective partnerships between able to agree on areas of best practice, whilst eschewing the broad-based teams of archaeologists, geoarchaeologists, idea of a ‘cookbook’ approach to methodologies in historians, and anthropologists. The greatest challenge of landscape archaeology, the results of which have been inter-disciplinary landscape archaeology in the Medi­ incorporated into the Manual of Best Practice that is terranean in the coming years will be how to bridge the currently in the final stages of completion. Its future use by divide between the ecological approaches of the natural Community archaeologists working in Mediterranean sciences to past landscapes, on the one hand, and the landscape archaeology will be the ultimate test of the concerns of social archaeologists on the other with the effectiveness of the POPULUS project in integrating the interface between human actions and landscape. best of the diversity of current methodologies in the In terms of modelling major trends in Mediterranean discipline. landscape history, one consistent theme for teams working During the discussions of the Working Parties, several in the eastern and western Mediterranean emerging from alternative views were expressed about the way regional the POPULUS network is evidence for settlement shifts, archaeological research and landscape archaeology should population increase and agricultural intensification in the be conducted. At one end of the spectrum were some third millennium BC, and the extent to which these changes archaeologists who advocated that they (the archaeologists) coincide with and are related to marked increases in the should enlist a battery of natural scientists and tap into their scale of human impact on sediments and vegetation and/or results for the purpose of understanding the environmental with climatic change. Regional inter-disciplinary landscape context of an excavation or survey record. At the other end projects are also contributing as profoundly to our of the spectrum were some geographers who proposed that understanding of the impact of Roman imperial expansion they (the scientists) should run the regional archaeological and subsequent Romanization on the human and natural projects, the head scientist being partnered by an landscapes of the Mediterranean. Another central concern archaeologist. As Graeme Barker and John Bintliff is the relative impact of climatic fluctuations and human comment at the end of the Aix-en-Provence volume impact in terms of dramatic environmental change: here, Mediterranean Landscape Archaeology 2, the conclusion one significant weakness of current work is the lack of from the Colloquia is that both these positions lack one emphasis on investigating the prehistory and history of fundamental component: where do we find the interpretative Mediterranean uplands. Some of the major landscape approaches for the human-landscape interaction that changes we can now detect in the Mediterranean region constitutes the prime reason that these many specialists are were the result of gradual long-term processes, others may working alongside each other? The work of the POPULUS have been caused by catastrophic events of short duration network has emphasized the enormous potential of and very long recurrence intervals. The widespread effective partnerships between broad-based teams of application of dating techniques such as luminescence and geoarchaeologists and modern intensive survey teams. palaeomagnetism in the coming years is likely to have an Reconstructing the history of Mediterranean landscape enormous impact in this respect: more refined chronologies change and demography certainly needs natural scientists seem likely to emphasize different rates of landscape to analyze the changing forms of the landscape, and change rather than uniformity, with profound implications archaeologists to analyze changing settlement morphologies for our understanding of human interactions with their and systems. To understand that history, however, in terms landscape.