PROJECT REPORT ON GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION Under guidance of Prof A. K. PRADHAN Dept. Of Civil Engineering Submitted by Priti Ranjan Sahoo Roll No:10501031 th B Tech, 8 semester Dept. of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “STUDY OF GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION”submitted by Mr Priti Ranjan Sahoo in partial fulfillments for the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Civil Engineering at National Institute of Technology, Rourkela (Deemed University) is an authentic work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance. To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not been submitted to any other University / Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma. Date: prof. Anil Kumar Pradhan Dept. of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela - 769008 Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela-769 008 May 2009 ACKNOWNLEDGEMENT I would like to articulate my deep gratitude to my project guide Prof A.K. Pradhan who has always been my motivation for carrying out the project. His constant inspiration and effort made this project work a great success. I am thankful to him for his contributions in completing this project work. An assemblage of this nature could never have been attempted without reference to and inspiration from the works of others whose details are mentioned in reference section. I acknowledge my indebtedness to all of them. Last but not the least to all of my friends who were patiently extended all sorts of help for accomplishing this undertaking. PRITI RANJAN SAHOO Roll No:10501031 Date: National Institute of Technology, Rourkela - 769008 Groundwater Groundwater is the under ground water that occurs in the saturated zone of variable thickness and depth, below the earth’s surface.Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of lithologic formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.Image of the entire surface water flow of the Alapaha River near Jennings, Florida going into a sinkhole leading to the Floridan Aquifer groundwater.Typically, groundwater is thought of as liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers, but technically it can also include soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of the Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater may not be confined only to the Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa. Groundwater Aquifer An aquifer is a layer of relatively porous substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and the saturated zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward.The upper level of this saturated layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where generally all pore spaces are saturated with water is the phreatic zone.Substrate with relatively low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard. An aquiclude is a substrate with porosity that is so low it is virtually impermeable to groundwater.A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively impermeable layer of rock or substrate such as an aquiclude or aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its recharge zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it flows. This can create artesian wells that flow freely without the need of a pump and rise to a higher elevation than the static water table at the above, unconfined, aquifer.The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of the substrate and topography in which they occur. Generally, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield relatively smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley-filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included among the most productive sources of groundwater.The high specific heat capacity of water and the insulating effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater at a relatively steady temperature. In some places where groundwater temperatures are maintained by this effect at about 50°F/10°C, groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot weather relatively cool groundwater can be pumped through radiators in a home and then returned to the ground in another well. During cold seasons, because it is relatively warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of heat for heat pumps that is much more efficient than using air. The relatively constant temperature of groundwater can also be used for heat pumps. Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the world's fresh water supply, which is about 0.61% of the entire world's water, including oceans and permanent ice. Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation, streams, and rivers when this recharge reaches the water table. It is estimated that the volume of groundwater comprises 30.1% of all freshwater resource on earth compared to 0.3% in surface freshwater; the icecaps and glaciers are the only larger sources of fresh water on earth at 68.7%.Groundwater can be a long-term 'reservoir' of the natural water cycle (with residence times from days to millennia), as opposed to short-term water reservoirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface water (which have residence times from minutes to years). The figure shows how deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural cycle. The Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one of the largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending for almost 2 million km2. By analyzing the trace elements in water sourced from deep underground, hydro geologists have been able to determine that water extracted from these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old. By comparing the age of groundwater obtained from different parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydro geologists have found it increases in age across the basin. Where water recharges the aquifers along the Eastern Divide, ages are relatively young. As groundwater flows westward across the continent, it increases in age, with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western parts. This means that in order to have travelled almost 1000 km from the source of recharge in 1 million years, the groundwater flowing through the Great Artesian Basin travels at an average rate of about 1 meter per year. SURFACE INVESTIGATIONS Although groundwater cannot be seen on the earth's surface,a variety of techniques can provide information concerning its occurrence and under certain conditions even its quality. Surface investigations helps us in finding the information about the type, porosity, water content and compactness of subsurface formation. IT is generally done with the aid of electrical and sismic properties of earth and without any drilling on the surface. The information’s supplied by these techniques are partially reliable and involve less expenditure. It provided only indirect indications of groundwater so that underground hydrologic data must be inferred from surface investigations. Correct interpretations requires supplementary data from sub surface investigations to substantiate surface findings. It is mainly achieved by the geophysical method viz, electrical resistivity & seismic refraction method. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD The electrical resistivity of a rock formation limits the amount of current passing through the formation when an electric potential is applied. It may be defined as the resistance in ohms between opposite faces of a unit cube of material. Resistivity : Resistance in ohms (Ω) between opposite faces of a unit cube of the . material ρ = RA/L Unit = ohm –m^2/m = ohm-meter Resistivity of various type of water: dTypes of water Resistivity in ohm-meter Meteoric water (derived from precipitation) 30-1000 Surface water (in districts of sedimentary 10-100 rocks) Ground water (in areas of igneous rocks) 30-150 Sea water 0.20 Groundwater(in areas of sedimentary rock) More than 1 Both porous and non porous rocks behave as insulators until they are in dry condition. Resistance decreases with increase in pore water. Unconsolidated material has more resistance than compacted material of same composition. Sedimentary rock has better conductance i.e. lesser resistance than igneous rocks. Clay has higher conductivity than sand because of presence of iron cluster on surface of the clay. Based on this knowledge from resistivity survey it is possible to distinguish between major rock group and the water bearing zones.