Project Gutenberg's Plants Poisonous to Live Stock, by Harold C. Long This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: Plants Poisonous to Live Stock Author: Harold C. Long Release Date: November 17, 2020 [EBook #63788] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLANTS POISONOUS TO LIVE STOCK *** Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) CAMBRIDGE AGRICULTURAL MONOGRAPHS PLANTS POISONOUS TO LIVE STOCK CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS C. F. CLAY, Manager London: FETTER LANE, E.C. Edinburgh: 100 PRINCES STREET London: H. K. LEWIS AND CO. Ltd., 136, GOWER STREET, W.C. London: WILLIAM WESLEY AND SON, 28, ESSEX STREET, STRAND New York: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS Bombay, Calcutta and Madras: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd. Toronto: J. M. DENT AND SONS, Ltd. Tokyo: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA All rights reserved a Reddish-brown to reddish-purple “Java” Beans (Phaseolus lunatus) ; b “Red Rangoon” Beans (P. lunatus); c “Large White” Beans (P. lunatus) ; d Castor Oil Beans (Ricinus communis); e “Indian Peas” (Lathyrus sativus), from Bombay; f Ergot (Claviceps purpurea), from Spain. All natural size. PLANTS POISONOUS TO LIVE STOCK BY HAROLD C. LONG, B.Sc. (Edin.) of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Author of Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden Cambridge: at the University Press 1917 A PREFACE s in the case of a previous volume, Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden, the preparation of this handbook was undertaken because of the great lack of readily available and reliable information on the subject in English scientific literature. Many of the facts were known to a few interested persons, but many others were so scattered here and there in technical reports and journals that they were scarcely known even to expert chemists and botanists. The bringing of this information together in some sort of order has involved considerable labour extending over several years, but if the volume be found helpful to those for whose use it has been prepared I shall feel more than gratified. That the subject is of importance is fully realised by farmers and veterinary surgeons alike, for the annual loss of stock due to poisonous plants, though not ascertainable, is undoubtedly considerable. It was felt that notes on mechanical injury caused by plants and on the influence of plants on milk might usefully be included, as in some degree related to poisoning; this has therefore been done. On the other hand, a number of cultivated plants (e.g. Rhus, Wistaria) which are poisonous have not been included because exotic and hardly likely to be eaten by stock. Fungi generally also find no place in the volume, as they are sufficiently extensive to deserve a volume to themselves, and are far less readily identified than flowering plants. The dividing line between plants which are actually poisonous and those which are only suspected is far from clear, but a division was considered desirable for the convenience of the reader, and an endeavour has been made to give a sound but brief statement as to the present information on plants poisonous to live stock in the United Kingdom, with symptoms, toxic principles, and a list of the more important references to the bibliography in relation to each plant included in Chapters II to VI (the numbers corresponding with the numbers in the Bibliography). Regarding symptoms it is to be regretted that in many cases they appear to be the result of injections of the toxic extracts, and not observations made after natural poisoning by ingestion of the plants. Further, there may frequently be doubt as to the identification of the plant suspected of causing poisoning; indeed, in some cases it is possible that the identification rests on the veterinary surgeon or the stockman thinking a certain plant is the cause. The most complete and systematic account of European poisonous plants is that of Cornevin (1887), and references to poisonous plants in the ordinary literature are heavily indebted to him. In so far as the toxic principles of the plants are concerned, however, his book is in many instances no longer reliable. The chemical formulae, quoted for the use of students and research workers, have been checked by consulting works by the following authors, the reference to the bibliography being given in brackets: Henry (128), Dunstan (76), Allen (4), Haas and Hill (114), Thorpe (240), Van Rijn (252), Kobert (161), Esser (81), and Beilstein (16). Apart from the literature consulted I desire to acknowledge my great indebtedness to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for kind permission to make use of official records; to Mr F. W. Garnett, M.R.C.V.S., for kindly reading the proofs from the veterinary standpoint; to very many Experiment Stations, State Departments of Agriculture, and other authorities in Australasia, America and the Continent of Europe, for assistance given and literature sent; to Sir David Prain and members of the staff at Kew for much friendly advice, and aid in consulting the Kew library; to Sir James Dobbie for permission to spend some time at the Government Laboratories to consult certain volumes; to Mr T. H. Middleton, C.B., Dr. E. J. Russell, Professor W. Somerville, Sir Stewart Stockman, Professor T. B. Wood, and others, for information and many helpful suggestions; to my friend Mr W. A. Whatmough, B.Sc. (Lond.), for many suggestions and kindly reading the proofs; and to my colleague Mr W. R. Black for invaluable help in preparing notes, checking data and reading proofs. To all these, and many others who are not mentioned by name, I tender my sincere thanks. For any shortcomings I crave the indulgence of my readers, only requesting that they be friendly enough to spare a moment to call my attention thereto. H. C. LONG. Surbiton, October, 1916. v vi CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. Introduction 1 What is a Poisonous Plant? Harm done by Poisonous Plants. Circumstances in which Poisoning occurs. Effect of Soil, Climate and Cultivation on the Toxic Properties of Plants. Variation in the Poisonous Parts of Plants. Eradication of Poisonous Plants. Treatment of Poisoned Animals. Tests with Suspected Plants. Legal Aspect of Plant Poisoning. The Toxic Principles of Plants. II. Ranunculaceæ. Papaveraceæ. Cruciferæ. Caryophyllaceæ. Hypericineæ. Geraniaceæ 9 III. Celastraceæ. Rhamnaceæ. Papilionaceæ. Rosaceæ. Cucurbitaceæ. Umbelliferæ 24 IV. Araliaceæ. Caprifoliaceæ. Compositæ. Ericaceæ. Primulaceæ. Oleaceæ. Convolvulaceæ. Solanaceæ 43 V. Scrophularineæ. Polygonaceæ. Thymelaceæ. Euphorbiaceæ. Amentaceæ. Coniferæ. Aroideæ 61 VI. Dioscorideæ. Liliaceæ. Gramineæ. Equisetaceæ. Filices. Fungi 78 VII. Plants suspected of being Poisonous 92 VIII. The Effects of Plants on Milk. Plants which cause Mechanical Injury 99 IX. Classification of Poisons 103 Bibliography 106 Index 114 Photograph of three varieties of Phaseolus beans, of Castor Oil Beans, Indian Peas, and Ergot Frontispiece vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION. What is a Poisonous Plant? As will be shown later, so-called “poisonous” plants differ widely in “degree of harmfulness,” and it is highly probable that under ordinary conditions many of the plants commonly reputed to be poisonous are really almost or quite harmless. It is possible, however, that a plant usually unsuspected may on occasion prove noxious—for example, Nepeta Glechoma (p. 96), included as suspected of poisoning horses. For these reasons, no line of demarcation can be drawn to separate actually poisonous plants from those which are suspected or are almost certainly quite harmless; and a large number of species is included in Chapter VII as suspected, many of them, however, being almost certainly more or less poisonous in certain circumstances. In many cases it is practically impossible to come to any conclusion as to the degree of toxicity of a plant, owing to the want of exact information. Many plants are quite harmless except when affected by fungi, moulds, etc. A really poisonous plant may be defined as one a small quantity of which when eaten induces some form of indisposition with irritant, narcotic, or nervous symptoms, with serious or even fatal consequences either immediately or by reason of cumulative action of the toxic property. Harm done by Poisonous Plants. A perusal of the following pages will afford convincing proof that the question of the general “wholesomeness” of wild plants is worthy of serious consideration by all who are interested in the practice of agriculture. Still more important is a satisfactory knowledge of the extent to which plants are actually poisonous—that is, sufficiently injurious when eaten in small or large quantities to induce more or less severe indisposition, illness or death, with the consequent losses which such bring in their train—loss of milk and meat production in the case of cattle, of meat and wool production in sheep, of power in the horse, of expenditure in attendance and veterinary treatment generally, and possibly total loss by death of the animals concerned. The losses due to Poisonous Plants in Great Britain happily afford no comparison whatever with the immense losses sustained in some other countries, such as the cases of lupine poisoning mentioned at p. 29, but deaths are sufficiently numerous to make it certain that financial losses are in the aggregate very heavy. In this connection it may suffice to refer to the many cases of yew poisoning, the losses due to Umbellifers (pp. 36–42), and the instance reported in the Staffordshire Weekly Sentinel in relation to meadow saffron and water hemlock (p. 80). Further, it appears to be extremely likely that many losses due to unascertained causes are really due to plant poisoning. For this reason veterinary surgeons will be well advised always to consider this possibility and, if need be, to obtain the services of a trained botanist to survey the farm or field involved, with the object of deciding whether poisonous plants are present. Circumstances in which Poisoning occurs. It may be assumed that many plants are to a considerable extent protected from animals by the fact that they have an unpleasant odour, are acrid or bitter to the taste, or are actually toxic in character, just as others assume such protective devices as spines. In a state of nature animals appear to avoid instinctively such plants as are toxic or “unwholesome,” and to be less readily poisoned than are domesticated animals living under artificial conditions. Indeed, it has been remarked that farm stock reared in a locality where certain poisonous plants abound are much less likely to be injured by these plants than animals imported from a district where they do not occur. The individuality of stock is also a factor which may be responsible for poisoning, some animals having what may be described as a depraved appetite for unusual and unappetising food plants. It would appear that animals are often tempted to eat dark-green plants of luxuriant growth which are soft and succulent. This is especially true when the plants are young and tender, particularly as regards sheep, which, however, usually avoid tall, old rank-growing and coarse herbage— unless absolutely pressed by hunger. Cattle, however, are not so particular, and will commonly eat large coarse-growing plants. Sheep have been observed to be particularly variable in their choice of food plants, not only individually in the flock, but from day to day. Chesnut and Wilcox remark[1] that “there seems to be no way of accounting for the appetite or taste of stock. This statement is perhaps especially true of sheep. We have often observed sheep eating greedily on one day plants which they could scarcely be persuaded to eat on the following day on the same range.” In the case of one flock of sheep on a foothill range at an altitude of 4,600 ft. “a few of the sheep were observed eating large quantities of wild sunflower (Balsamorhiza sagittata), a few ate freely of false lupine (Thermopsis rhombifolia), some confined their attention largely to the wild geranium, while others ate false esparcet (Astragalus bisulcatus) almost exclusively. Two sheep were seen eating the leaves of lupine, and about fifty ate a greater or less quantity of Zygadenus venenosus, while the majority of sheep in the band fed exclusively upon the native grasses on the range.” 1. “The Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana,” V. K. Chesnut and E. V. Wilcox. Bul. No. 26. U.S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot., 1901. Horses also have been known to acquire in America a depraved appetite for horsetail and loco-weed. The different species of live stock are often quite differently affected by poisonous plants, some being very susceptible to a given plant while others may be little or not at all susceptible. One species (e.g. the pig) may readily vomit the poison of a plant which is emetic, while another (e.g. the horse) may be unable to do so and hence be the more seriously injured. The variability of the different classes of live stock in this respect is frequently brought out in Chapters II to VI. Poisonous effects may also vary with the individuality and age of animals of the same species. At certain periods of the year—e.g. in early spring, and during dry summers,—there may be a scarcity of green 1 2 3 herbage, and this may induce animals to eat any green plants which are especially early, including poisonous ones, which they would otherwise refuse. In some cases poisonous plants which do not lose their toxic properties on drying (e.g. meadow saffron) may be included in hay, and hence find their way to stock in such a form that they may not be distinguished. It has been found, however, that some poisonous plants or parts of them are refused by stock when mixed with good herbage in hay. Care should be exercised that poisonous plants are not included with hay or green fodder, and in cases of poisoning all forage should be examined. Animals may also be poisoned by certain toxic seeds (e.g. corn cockle) fed to them with cereal grains, in feeding stuffs generally, or in the refuse seeds from the sources mentioned. Here again judgment is necessary, and it is probably advisable on all counts to burn the weed seeds and similar refuse from the sources mentioned. Poisonous seeds may occur in low quality feeding stuffs, and poisonous seeds of foreign origin are occasionally sold for food purposes owing to the mistaken idea that they are a valuable addition to the ration (e.g. the poisonous “Java” beans). In any case in which an animal is believed to have been poisoned purchased feeding stuffs should always be considered as a possible source of injury and be submitted to examination. Clippings and trimmings from gardens and shrubberies have proved a more or less common cause of live stock poisoning, such material being too often carelessly thrown out for animals to pick over. In such circumstances it may quite easily happen that the animals get yew, daphne, privet, rhododendron, azalea, solanums, and other plants of a poisonous character. For this reason it is better to destroy such trimmings, etc., by burning them, or by adding them to the compost heap as the case may be. A further source of poisoning must be noted here—fleshy and parasitic fungi (toadstools, rust fungi), moulds and similar organisms. Many toadstools are directly poisonous when eaten, but the microscopic organisms are probably in themselves harmless, though taken with food which they are responsible for injuring (bad hay, cakes, etc.), the poisoning being due to the changed and damaged feeding stuffs, or possibly to poisonous principles directly elaborated by the microscopic fungi. Fungi and related organisms cannot be dealt with in this volume, but it may at least be said that the use of mouldy hay and similarly affected feeding stuffs is attended with some danger, which is not yet very clearly defined. Effect of Soil, Climate and Cultivation on the Toxic Properties of Plants. In general, wild poisonous plants are richer in either alkaloids or glucosides than the same species when cultivated, though there are exceptions. In many cases it is found that plants vary considerably in toxicity, or the percentage content of the poisonous principle, according to soil, light, moisture, etc. Solanaceous plants in particular vary in this way, and one or two instances may be given as examples. Solanum nigrum varies so much that it has been regarded as harmless in one country and quite poisonous in another (p. 52). Experiments conducted at the Arlington Experimental Farm, Virginia, showed that in 24 first-year plants of Atropa Belladonna grown in 1910 the alkaloid contents of the leaves varied from 0·334 to 0·700 per cent., and averaged 0·547 per cent. In 1911 the alkaloid contents (usually the average of five pickings) of the leaves of 59 plants varied from 0·306 to 0·766 per cent., and averaged 0·532 per cent. In 1912 the alkaloid contents (commonly the average of 5 pickings) of the leaves of 57 plants varied from 0·352 to 0·768 per cent., and averaged 0·545 per cent. In individual plants at a single picking the highest alkaloid content in 1911 was 0·925 and the lowest 0·200, and in 1912 the highest was 0·882 and the lowest 0·292. (Jour. Agric. Res., I. 2, Nov., 1913.) The variation in the percentage of poisonous principle was well shown in several papers read at the International Congress of Applied Chemistry held at Washington and New York in 1912 (see Chemist and Druggist reports). For example, Carr stated that at the Wellcome Materia Medica Farm, Dartford, Kent, the effect of manuring on medicinal plants has been tested for some years, and the effect of the more common fertilisers on Atropa Belladonna was shown by the following table:— Percentage of Alkaloid in Dry Stem and Leaf Fertiliser Time of Application Per acre 1906 3rd year’s plants 1907 4th year’s plants 1910 1st year’s plants 1911 2nd year’s plants 1912 3rd year’s plants Main crop 0·54 0·34 0·61 0·59 0·68 Farmyard manure March 50 loads 0·54 0·34 0·61 0·53 0·71 Nitrate March & April 2 cwt. 0·52 0·23 0·54 0·46 0·64 Calcium cyanamide Do. 1 cwt. 0·69 0·49 0·75 Basic slag Do. 2 cwt. 0·61 0·65 0·56 0·84 Superphosphate Do. 5 cwt. 0·46 0·81 0·49 0·76 Potash Do. 5 cwt. 0·61 0·40 0·75 0·53 0·69 In considering these results it must be remembered that the soil is naturally suited to the plant, and the percentage of alkaloid obtained without added fertilisers is already high. The low figures obtained in 1907 were probably due to the seasonal conditions. Atmospheric conditions have a modifying influence. It was also shown that the Belladonna root of commerce varies greatly in alkaloid strength. “In a number of analyses made of commercial roots, variations from 0·27 to 0·69 per cent. have occurred. The average of twenty-one analyses of 4 5 German and Austrian commercial roots was 0·40 per cent. Other observers have recorded similar results. Chevalier (Compt. Rend., 1910, 150, 344) gives the following figures for Continental roots: French, 0·300 to 0·450 per cent.; Austrian, 0·251 to 0·372 per cent.; Italian, 0·107 to 0·187 per cent. Henderson has shown the average of thirty samples of foreign root to be 0·3 per cent. It is interesting to observe that the average of nine samples of root grown at Darenth is 0·54 per cent. In order to determine whether this variation was due to collecting at different times of the year, roots from the same plot, derived from second year’s plants, which were sown at the same time, were dug up at intervals and dried. The following is a record of the analysis of these samples:— March, 1911 0·56 per cent. May, 1911 0·59 „ „ June, 1911 0·53 „ „ August, 1911 0·50 „ „ December, 1911 0·59 „ „ “The amount of variation throughout the year is thus seen to be very small.” Dunstan (Bul. Imp. Inst., 1905) has shown that Hyoscyamus muticus grown in India yielded 0·3 to 0·4 per cent. of hyoscyamine, but that the same species grown in Egypt produced 0·6 to 1·2 per cent. According to Esser no coniine is found in Conium maculatum growing in the far north. The same authority says that the root of Hyoscyamus niger is quite free from toxic properties in winter. Variation in the Poisonous Parts of Plants. As will be shown in succeeding chapters, many plants (e.g. meadow saffron) are poisonous in all their parts, though the amount of the toxic substance may differ according as to whether the seeds, leaves, stem or roots are severally considered. In other cases one part of the plant alone is toxic (e.g. the seeds, as in corn cockle). Further, some species vary in the percentage of the toxic substance in the leaves before and after flowering. Frequently the root is the most toxic portion of the plant. This point may be usefully recollected in relation to poisoning of live stock, which are in general affected by the foliage or ripe seeds. Eradication of Poisonous Plants. Wherever poisonous plants are found, particularly in quantity, where they are liable to be eaten by live stock, an attempt should be made to eradicate them. They may be simply dealt with as weeds as may be necessary according to the species concerned. When any difficulty is experienced in regard either to determination of the species or to methods of eradication the advice of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries (Whitehall Place, London, S.W.) should be requested. Stock should at once be removed from a suspected pasture, which should be immediately and thoroughly examined by a competent botanist. Harmful plants should be eradicated and their place filled by better herbage. Treatment of Poisoned Animals. This volume makes no pretensions to deal with the veterinary treatment of cases of plant poisoning. Whenever poisoning is suspected the services of a veterinary surgeon should be sought without delay; the text books at his disposal will aid him in the treatment of any case which presents unusual difficulties. The symptoms indicated in the following pages, together with the possible discovery of a suspected plant, may be utilised in diagnosis. Tests with Suspected Plants. The action of plants on animals may be ascertained (1) by observing the effects in cases in which it has been established that the plants have been eaten, or (2) by direct experimental feeding of animals with the plant. In the first case the results may be accurate and satisfactory if observations have been made from the outset. As regards (2) the results may or may not be satisfactory according as the plan pursued is sound or otherwise. For example, it cannot be considered altogether reasonable and satisfactory to extract the principles present in the plant, inject them into the blood stream, and conclude from any ill effects that the animal may exhibit that the plant is poisonous, since the substance extracted may be poisonous under such conditions but little or not at all harmful when the plant is eaten in the small quantities commonly taken by animals. Again, it cannot be held satisfactory to feed an animal on a heavy and exclusive diet of the suspected plant for a considerable period. The real test would, in general, consist in a feeding trial in which the suspected plant occupied a place in the ration in reasonable quantity—such a quantity as might well be taken in natural circumstances, in view of its relative abundance in regard to other food available; and if considered likely that the plant would be eaten daily it may be fed regularly for some days. Should such a test prove negative it may generally be held that the plant is not poisonous, or only so in exceptional circumstances. Legal Aspect of Plant Poisoning. There is clearly some legal liability in regard to poisonous plants which may, by hanging over a boundary, cause injury to a neighbour’s stock. The only cases known to the author are in relation to the yew. In the case of Crowhurst v. Amersham Burial Board (48 L. J., Ex. 109; 4 Ex. D., 5) a Burial Board was held liable for the loss of a horse poisoned by eating leaves of a yew tree planted in the cemetery owned by the Board, the tree having grown through and over their fence and projected on to the meadow occupied by the plaintiff. In Ponting v. Noakes (63 L. J. B. 549; (1894) 2 Q.B., 281) the defendant was not held liable for the death of a horse which ate off the branches of a yew tree, because the tree did not extend up to or over the plaintiff’s boundary, though it overhung a ditch, the edge of which was the boundary, and was hence accessible to the plaintiff’s stock. The Toxic Principles of Plants. The poisonous substances in plants may be grouped either (1) according to their physiological effects on certain organs; (2) according to the principal outward and perceptible symptoms caused; or (3) in accordance with their chemical relationships. In regard to (1) the poisons may be nerve, heart, blood-poisons, etc. (2) The poisons may be acrid, narcotic, or both. Acrid poisons are those which cause irritation or inflammation of the digestive tract (Euphorbia, Ranunculus, Daphne, etc.); narcotic poisons affect only or chiefly the brain (Agrostemma, Papaver, Atropa) or chiefly the spinal cord 6 7 8 (Claviceps purpurea, Lolium temulentum); acrid-narcotic poisons induce to a greater or less extent the symptoms of both the foregoing groups (Taxus, Colchicum, Cicuta, Solanum, etc.). (3) As the accounts of the individual plants will show, the toxic principles of many plants are not yet well understood, either as regards chemical constitution or symptoms caused. Many poisons may be driven off by heat (boiling, drying), and some plants may thus be rendered harmless. Most of the toxic principles of our native poisonous plants are Alkaloids or Glucosides. The former all contain nitrogen, differ considerably in molecular constitution, and are usually combined with widely distributed organic acids. In the pure state they are colourless and usually stable, crystalline or amorphous solids, or readily volatile liquids; they usually have a burning taste. In general the same base is confined to species of the same order—e.g. Solanine to the Solanaceæ. The alkaloids include the most powerful poisons. The term “Glucoside” indicates a group of substances which by the action of an acid or enzyme are split up into a sugar (grape sugar, galactose or rhamnose) and other substances (alcohol, aldehydes, acids). They have a bitter taste and are generally readily soluble in water. Related to the glucosides are also the Saponins, remarkable for the fact that they induce an exceedingly frothy condition in water; the prussic acid yielding compounds or cyanogenetic glucosides (e.g. Amygdalin and Phaseolunatin) also belong to this group. Other substances will be mentioned in the succeeding chapters. CHAPTER II RANUNCULACEÆ. Traveller’s Joy (Clematis Vitalba L.). The extent to which this species is poisonous is not clear, though all parts are stated to be poisonous, acrid and narcotic, while the juice tends to blister the skin. It is remarked by Cornevin that it is less poisonous in spring, when the ass and goat browse on it to a considerable extent without serious trouble, than later, when it cannot be eaten without danger. Toxic Principle. Traveller’s Joy appears to contain strongly poisonous substances which have not been closely investigated. Greshoff found a Saponin in the leaves[2]. The poison is dissipated by heat. 2. Kobert states that various species of Clematis, Ranunculus, Anemone, and also Caltha palustris and Trollius europæus, contain Anemonal or Pulsatilla-camphor, which causes strong local irritation, burning and swelling in the mouth, vomiting, intestinal inflammation, etc. Symptoms. When eaten in quantity the young shoots are diuretic, violently purgative, causing dysentery, and in rare cases death. Applied to the exterior it is irritating and even vesicatory. (Cornevin.) REFERENCES. 63, 81, 101, 130, 161, 233. Anemone (Anemone sp.). Both our native species of Anemone appear to be more or less poisonous in character: the Wood Anemone or Wind Flower (A. nemorosa L.), and also the Pasque Flower (A. Pulsatilla L.). These plants, the former of which grows in woods and damp shady spots in fields, and the latter on chalk downs and limestone pastures, may on occasion be taken by stock in early spring, when green herbage is not too plentiful, but deaths appear to be rare, even if they have occurred. All parts of the plants contain a toxic principle, which is volatile and destroyed by drying. Toxic Principle. The toxic substance is stated to be Anemone-camphor (oil of Anemone) which imparts a bitter taste to the plants, and itself gives rise in the plant to Anemonic acid and Anemonin (C10H8O4), a very poisonous, narcotic substance, stated to be neither a glucoside, nor an alkaloid, but a ring ketone with the properties of an acid anhydride. Symptoms.—The symptoms recorded by Cornevin in the poisoning of animals by the fresh plants are nausea, coughing, vomiting (if possible), stupefaction, muscular tremors, and violent colic, accompanied at times by hæmaturia and always by diarrhœa and dysentery. There are pronounced respiratory and heart troubles. Pott confirms the symptoms of hæmaturia, diarrhœa, and inflammation of the stomach and intestines in the case of A. Pulsatilla when fed in the green condition. According to Esser, the plant poison affects the spinal cord and the brain, the symptoms being similar to those produced by Aconitum Napellus. REFERENCES. 16, 63, 81, 191, 197, 198, 213, 233, 240. Buttercups (Ranunculus sp.). A number of species of Ranunculus are acrid, irritant or severely poisonous, as the case may be. There are variations in the poisonous character according to the season, and some parts of the plant are more toxic than others. At the time the young shoots develop in the spring but little of the poisonous principle is present, and some (e.g. R. Ficaria) are not then poisonous, but a larger quantity of the poisonous principle forms later, and some species are especially dangerous at the time of flowering, after which the toxicity decreases with the maturity and state of dryness of the plant. The flowers are the most poisonous, and then the leaves and stem. It does not seem to have been demonstrated that the seeds of any species are dangerous, though Henslow states that the fruits of some species, when green, appear to be most intensely acrid. Some species of Ranunculus are especially harmful (R. sceleratus, R. Flammula, and R. bulbosus), while others are less so (R. lingua, R. Ficaria, R. acris). The toxic principle is volatile, and buttercups are easily rendered innocuous by drying or boiling—so much so that when dried in hay they may be regarded as a nourishing food for stock, and are readily eaten. Indeed, R. repens is scarcely, if at all, injurious even when green, though a case of fatal poisoning to sheep said to be due to this species was reported in the Veterinarian in 1844. Fresh R. aquatilis is held to be quite harmless, and has been used as a fodder. “Along the banks of the Hampshire Avon, and other places in the same neighbourhood, it is used by the peasantry as fodder. They collect it in boats and give it to their cows and horses, allowing the former about twenty to thirty pounds a day. One man is said to have kept five cows and a horse, with little other food but what they could pick up on the heath, using no hay but when the river was frozen. Hogs eat it and will live upon it alone until put up to fatten.” (Johnson and Sowerby—Useful Plants of Great Britain.) R. sceleratus L., or Celery-leaved Buttercup, is probably the most toxic species, and it is stated that in man a single flower may cause poisonous symptoms resembling those due to Anemone and Colchicum. It is considered especially dangerous to cattle, and has caused many losses: among its French names are Mort aux Vaches, and Herbe sardonique. Poor people have been known to eat the young shoots when boiled, heat dispelling the poison. R. Flammula L., the Lesser Spearwort, has repeatedly proved fatal to horses and cattle. R. bulbosus L., the Bulbous Buttercup, is somewhat variable in toxicity, and is least dangerous after the flowers have dropped their corolla, and the bulb-like rootstock is most harmful in autumn and winter. The flowers are the most dangerous part. 9 10 11 R. Ficaria L., Lesser Celandine, varies in toxicity with locality and season, being most harmful at the flowering period. It is stated that wood-pigeons eat the roots with avidity, and that the young shoots have been eaten as a salad in Germany, as they are not toxic. An English veterinary surgeon (Flower) recorded that three heifers were poisoned by it (Vide Cornevin). R. acris L., Acrid Buttercup or Tall Crowfoot, is a frequent cause of poisoning in cattle, and Cornevin says it is perhaps the species which causes the most accidents. Toxic Principle. The buttercups contain an acrid and bitter juice, the chemical properties and composition of which are not well known, but it is believed that the substance is identical with the Anemonin of the Anemone sp. (q.v.). Beckurts isolated Anemonin and Anemonic acid from R. acer. Pott, however, states that the poisonous species contain the two alkaloids Aconitine and Delphinine. Symptoms. The buttercups are acrid, burning and narcotic, causing irritation of the mucous membrane, with inflammation of the intestinal tract. Cornevin shows that R. sceleratus induces gastro-enteritis, colic, diarrhœa with excretion of black foul-smelling fæces, vomiting when possible, falling-off in milk yield in cows, nervous symptoms, reduction in pulse, and stertorous respiration, dilation of the pupils, enfeebled condition, difficult mastication, spasmodic movements of the ears, lips, etc.,—followed in serious cases by convulsions, sinking of the eye in its socket, possibly stoppage, and death in 6 to 12 hours after convulsions first appeared. In the horse symptoms substantially similar to the above have been recorded (Lander). In cows, Pott records hæmaturia, and reddish or bitter milk. Sheep after eating R. repens have been noticed to fall suddenly in the field; their eyes rolled, and some animals showed dizziness, and died with the head inclined over the left flank (Lander). REFERENCES. 47, 63, 81, 112, 130, 140, 145, 170, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233, 235. Marsh Marigold or King-Cup (Caltha palustris L.). Like the species of Ranunculus, the Marsh Marigold is to some extent poisonous in character, and both animals and man have suffered. Cattle have died from eating it, and Müller records the poisoning of many horses, one of which died. In general, animals refuse it, but may possibly eat it when pressed with hunger in times of scarcity of green herbage. Cornevin states that it has little or no acrid properties when very young, but that it is toxic by the time of flowering—acridity increasing with age. Toxic Principle. The toxic character of the Marsh Marigold has not been fully investigated, though the presence of an alkaloid has been determined, and A. B. Smith states that the toxic properties are due to the alkaloid Jervine (C26H37O3N2H2O) and the glucoside Helleborin (C36H42O6). On drying—e.g. in hay—the plant becomes harmless, as in the case of most species of Ranunculus. Symptoms. Cornevin records that cattle have died from inflammation of the digestive tract, and gives the symptoms as those of Ranunculus poisoning. There seem to be digestive troubles, diarrhœa, and loss of milk production, even (according to Rusby) when fed with hay. In the horse, there is colic, bloating, and inflammation of the bladder, while the urine is dark red. According to Cornevin, the symptoms are similar to those produced by Ranunculus sp. Pammel quotes Friedberger and Fröhner as stating that the plant causes hæmaturia. Five persons who ate it as a herb were “seized with violent sickness and pain in the abdomen, followed by diarrhœa and general œdematous swelling over the whole body,” but they recovered (Johnson and Sowerby). REFERENCES. 63, 81, 140, 190, 203, 213, 233. Hellebores (Helleborus sp.). Two poisonous species of hellebore may on occasion be taken by live stock, though rarely—Stinking Hellebore (H. fœtidus L.) and Green Hellebore (H. viridis L.). The much esteemed Christmas Rose (H. niger) is also toxic, but unlikely to be eaten by stock. In no case should trimmings of these plants from shrubberies, etc., be thrown to stock—cows have died from eating such trimmings. The two species first mentioned are equally toxic, all parts are poisonous, and drying does not render them innocuous. Cornevin records that animals have been killed by H. fœtidus, and says that 9½ oz. of the fresh root or 2½ oz. of the dried root are poisonous doses to the horse, while 120 to 150 grains are fatal to sheep. It was recorded in 1847 (Veterinarian) by Mayer that a horse was fatally poisoned through eating five half-pints of the chopped-up leaves of this species in two days in a bran mash. In regard to this species also Johnson and Sowerby write: “The Bear’s-Foot has been used as a vermifuge ever since the days of Hippocrates, notwithstanding its dangerous qualities. Every part of the plant is a violent cathartic, but far too uncertain in the degree of its action to be safely administered.” Toxic Principle. Both species contain the poisonous glucosides Helleborin (C36H42O6), a highly narcotic and powerful poison; Helleborein (C26H44O15); and the alkaloid Jervine (C26H37O3N2H2O). Symptoms. The Hellebores are cathartic, narcotic, and drastically purgative. Stupor is followed by death with spasms in the case of H. viridis (Pammel). In general there is in the horse and ox bloody purgation, salivation, attempts to vomit, and excessive urination, according to Lander, who cites Mayer as noting violent straining and the discharge of frothy mucus, but no effort to vomit, the heart action resembling that observed in Digitalis poisoning, showing periodic intervals of arrest in systole. 12 13 Müller gives the symptoms in cattle and sheep after eating the leaves as loss of appetite, nausea, and even vomiting, salivation, grinding of teeth, wind, colic, bloody diarrhœa, decrepitude, giddiness, loss of sensation, convulsions, and not seldom death. Affected cows are stated to give bitter milk which has purgative effects (Pott). The poisoning of two cows by H. viridis came under the notice of Cornevin. There was observed loss of appetite, diarrhœa, tenesmus, violent attempts to evacuate, which after 5 or 6 days resulted only in the expulsion of glareous blackish matter; to the end the pulse was slow and intermittent. The heart beats were weak, and after 5 or 6 beats there was a stop equal in duration to at least a beat and a half. A remarkable fact was the very gradual loss of condition, while the milk secretion was maintained until the last day. In one case death occurred after 12 days and in the other after 28 days. REFERENCES. 63, 81, 130, 140, 170, 190, 203, 205, 213, 233, 254. Larkspur (Delphinium Ajacis Reich.). In the United States of America certain species of Larkspur are exceedingly harmful to live stock, and it has been said that “with the exception of the Loco weeds there is probably no poisonous plant on the cattle ranges of the West that has caused such heavy losses to stockmen as has larkspur” (Far. Bul. 53, U. S. Dept. Agric.). D. Ajacis is the only British species, occurring in cornfields in Cambridgeshire, Sussex and elsewhere, and, like the Continental species D. Consolida, must be regarded as poisonous and fatal to cattle, while horses and sheep may also suffer. Sheep and goats, however, appear to resist the poison unless taken in considerable quantity. Wilcox fatally poisoned a yearling lamb within an hour of administering per os the extract from less than 1 oz. of the dried leaves of an American species. The seeds are the most dangerous part of the Larkspur, and should never be ground up with wheat should the two plants grow together. The seeds of D. Staphisagria are used in medicine. Toxic Principle. The species D. Ajacis has been little studied, but D. Consolida and D. Staphisagria contain the alkaloids Delphinine (C31H49O7N), very poisonous and having a bitter taste; Delphisine (C31H49O7N), which is extremely poisonous; Delphinoidine (C42H68N2O7), which is poisonous; and Staphisagrine. Symptoms. The seeds are stated to be emetic and purgative, and D. Consolida is stated by Pott to be an acute narcotic poison to horses and cattle. In general the symptoms appear to resemble those produced by Aconitum (p. 15). There is salivation, vomiting, colic, convulsions, and general paralysis (Müller). REFERENCES. 16, 63, 93, 128, 130, 190, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233. Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus L.). The extremely poisonous character of this plant has been recognised since ancient times, and it is mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides, etc. It is not common in the wild state in Britain—chiefly occurring in some Welsh and one or two West of England counties—and is not very liable to cause poisoning of live stock in Britain. Cases of poisoning of horses, cattle, sheep and pigs have been recorded on the Continent, however (Cornevin), and cows died in Victoria. Linnæus says that it is fatal to cows and goats when they eat it fresh, but that when dried it does no harm to horses. Medical works record many cases of human poisoning, particularly in cases where the root has been mistaken for horse radish—from which, however, it markedly differs. The leaves at first taste insipid and then sharply burning; the root when fresh smells like the radish and has a slightly sweetish taste, which is succeeded by characteristic tingling of the tongue and a sensation of numbness in the mouth. Toxic Principle. Monkshood is very poisonous, and though all parts are toxic the root is the most dangerous, and next the seeds and leaves. The plant seems to vary in toxicity with age and climate, being but slightly active when very young, most active just before flowering, and at the minimum of activity when the seeds ripen. The cultivated form is stated to be much less poisonous than the wild one. Drying removes a part of the toxic substance, and boiling removes most of it. The plant contains the toxic alkaloid Aconitine (C34H45NO11), and also Aconine (C25H39NO9). The root contains 0·17 to 0·28 per cent. of Aconitine, but the leaves and flowers less. Symptoms. The chief symptoms are those of depression, and are manifested through the nervous system and the circulatory and respiratory organs. Tetanic symptoms are also present. There is loss of appetite, salivation, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth and jaws, grinding of teeth, nausea and vomiting, great restlessness and colic; the animal groans and walks with an uncertain gait owing to bodily weakness, giddiness and paralysis of hind feet or of all limbs; there is also a notable slackening in the pulse, breathing becomes difficult, consciousness is lost and the pupils are dilated. Death ensues in most cases within a few hours, and after convulsions. Kaufmann (quoted by Cornevin) observed in the horse champing of the jaws, salivation, fibrillous contraction of the muscles of the olecranon, then of the buttocks, then of the whole body. The intestinal pains were shown by the blows of the animal’s hind feet under and at the back of the belly. There was also observed an intense and painful contraction of the muscles in the inferior cervical region, the hyoid and the abdomen; an increased sensibility; repeated evacuations; at first congestion, then great paleness of the mucous membranes; diminution in the volume of the arteries; faint whinnyings at the moment of the contraction of the muscles of the neck, shoulders and stomach; muscular rigidity of the posterior limbs; uncertain gait; laboured breathing; and finally paralysis of motion, respiration and senses. Lander in giving similar symptoms for the horse notices also choking movements of the œsophagus, eructation of frothy matter, dilatation of pupils and low temperature. Kaufmann gives the poisonous doses of powdered root for the horse and dog as 13 to 14 oz. and ⅙ oz. respectively. 14 15 16 REFERENCES. 4, 16, 63, 78, 81, 128, 130, 153, 161, 170, 203, 205, 213, 233. PAPAVERACEÆ. Poppies (Papaver sp.). Poisoning by the two common poppies (P. Rhoeas L. and P. dubium L.) is not common, but Cornevin says that the former is poisonous in all its parts, and sufficiently so to cause accidents every year. Animals may be affected by eating the plant when mixed with green fodder, or by ingesting the seeds and capsules with waste material after the winnowing and grading of cereals. Stock, however, will most likely reject the plants, owing to their unpleasant odour and taste, but cattle have been poisoned by eating unripe heads of P. Rhoeas when the plant was mixed with clover and sainfoin. P. dubium has caused poisoning of horses, cattle and pigs. Toxic Principle. Both species contain the alkaloids Morphine (C17H19NO3) and Rheadine (C21H21NO6), which are present in the milky juice of the plant. The latter, which was isolated by Hesse, is believed to have no narcotic effects. The toxic principle is not destroyed by heating, and the plant is therefore poisonous both in the green state and when dried in hay. Symptoms. It is remarked by Cornevin that cattle poisoned by P. Rhoeas at first exhibit symptoms of excitement, shown by continual movement, by pawing of the soil or litter, increased respiration and more rapid pulse; this is followed by stoppage of the digestive functions, sometimes a little swelling of the eyelids, and coma, one affected animal appearing to sleep while standing, remaining motionless, and if forced to move walking in an unsteady manner. Finally, the animal falls, and if a fatal result is likely (which is unusual) it remains stretched on the ground; respiration becomes slower, the temperature falls, and after a few convulsive movements death occurs owing to asphyxia. Müller notes excitement, wildness of look, dilatation of pupil, convulsions; then coma, loss of sensation and symptoms of depression replace those of excitement. There is salivation, bloating, constipation, and in many cases also bloody diarrhoea. Death, however, is rare. Pott gives stupidity, retention of urine, colic, with sickness and diarrhœa, convulsions, and epileptic symptoms, the animals falling over and rolling. REFERENCES. 4, 16, 63, 128, 190, 205, 213, 262. Greater Celandine (Chelidonium majus L.). This common plant exhales an unpleasant odour, and when bruised or broken shows the presence of a yellowish acrid juice, which becomes red immediately on exposure to the air. It is an old medicinal drug plant, but is dangerous, being emetic and purgative, with a strongly irritating effect on the digestive tract. Animals are but rarely likely to take it, and no record of the death of domesticated animals has been found. Toxic Principle. Among the substances contained in the Greater Celandine may be mentioned the bitter alkaloid Chelidonine (C20H19NO5 + H2O), which, especially occurring in the root, does not appear to be poisonous, or is of feeble activity; the alkaloid Chelerythrine (C21H17NO4), which is poisonous; and Protopine (C20H19NO5). It is stated by Cornevin that the toxic substance is not removed on drying, but Pott (1907) remarks that the dried plant is harmless to animals, the poisonous alkaloid being volatile and disappearing on drying. Symptoms. The action of this plant is acrid, irritant and narcotic, emetic and purgative. Esser remarks that when Chelerythrine is introduced on the nasal mucous membrane it causes violent sneezing, and taken internally causes vomiting. Müller says that poisoning of domesticated animals is not recorded, but that according to old accounts 500 grammes (about 1 lb.) of the fresh plant eaten by the horse will at most cause slight diabetes. REFERENCES. 16, 63, 81, 128, 141, 190, 203, 205, 213. 17 18 CRUCIFERÆ. Charlock (Brassica Sinapistrum Boiss.), also known as B. Sinapis Visiani and Sinapis arvensis L., may be regarded as harmless in the young state, but liable to cause injury after flowering, when the seeds have formed, when it may occasion serious accidents if eaten by live stock. A case in which rape cake containing the seeds of charlock caused poisoning was recorded in 1875 (Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.). The seeds only are dangerous. Toxic Principle. The seeds contain minute quantities of volatile Oil of Mustard or Allyl-isothiocyanate (C3H5NCS), the alkaloid Sinapine (C16H23NO5), and the alkaloidal glucoside Sinalbin. Symptoms. Ingestion of the seeds may cause inflammation of the stomach and intestines (with loss of appetite, wind, colic, and diarrhœa); inflammation of kidneys (difficult, excessive or bloody urination); and nervous symptoms, with great exhaustion, uncertain gait, paralysis of limbs and in isolated cases convulsions (Müller). Pott also records increased salivation. In the horse Cornevin records great depression, difficult...