Interdiscip Toxicol. 2013; Vol. 6(4): 185–191. interdisciplinary doi: 10.2478/intox-2013-0027 Published online in: www.intertox.sav.sk & www.versita.com/it Copyright © 2013 SETOX & IEPT, SASc. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribu- tion License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ORIGINAL ARTICLE Pilot study on agricultural pesticide poisoning in Burkina Faso Adama M. TOE 1, Mustapha OUEDRAOGO 2, Richard OUEDRAOGO 1,2, Sylvain ILBOUDO 1,2, Pierre I. GUISSOU 1,2 1 Research Institute of Health Sciences, CNRST, Burkina Faso 2 Laboratory of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Health Sciences Faculty, University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso ITX060413A05 • Received: 28 June 2013 • Revised: 02 November 2013 • Accepted: 08 November 2013 ABSTRACT Epidemiologic data related to agricultural pesticide poisoning cases in Burkina Faso were collected. The study was carried out using retrospective (from January 2002 to June 2010) surveys conducted among farmers and healthcare centers. One hundred and fifty- three (153) pest control products were recorded during the survey and 56 active ingredients were identified. Out of the 153 pest control products, 49 (i.e. 32%) were authorized for sale in Burkina Faso. The main risk factors are socio-demographic characteristics of farmers, their low education level, and some attitudes and practices on using agricultural pesticides. Pesticide poisonings are relatively frequent and their management was not always efficacious. Actions are needed to reduce pesticide poisoning as a global public health problem and to improve management of pesticide poisoning. To this purpose, advanced investigations should be carried out over a longer period of time to complement the present pilot study. KEY WORDS: pesticides; poisoning; farmers; Burkina Faso Introduction The agricultural sector is very important in the national to reduce the damage caused to crops by pests and even to economy of Burkina Faso. As a matter of fact, it employs prevent them. However, pesticides constitute a real threat 86% of the total population and generates about 40% of for health and environment in Burkina Faso (Ouédraogo the gross domestic product (GDP). Diseases and animal et al., 2009). pests cause major damage in agriculture and can be Several studies carried out in Burkina Faso have shown responsible in some cases for up to 30% of yield losses in that agricultural producers did not follow good agricul- Burkina Faso. Thus plant protection products are used to tural practices (Domo, 1996; Ouédraogo et al., 2009; eradicate pests affecting crops, particularly in the case of Toe et al., 2002; Toe et al., 2012). Yet, to the best of our intensive cultures such as cash crops, sugarcane, vegetable knowledge, recent data on agricultural pesticide poison- crops, and to a lesser extent fruit trees (MAHRH, 2007). ing in Burkina Faso are not available. Our study aimed In 1997, more than 2 500 tons of pesticide formulations at collecting epidemiologic data related to agricultural were estimated to be used in Burkina Faso and that only pesticide poisoning cases in Burkina Faso. for the treatment of cotton, vegetables and the consump- tion of plant protection services (Van Der Valk & Diarra, 2000). The annual growth rate of pesticide consumption Methods reached 11% (Toe & Kinane, 2004). Pesticides are con- sidered as one of the main factors of rural development Study area at a time when demographic and economic constraints Field work (surveys and interviews) took place in the increase the pressure for productivity growth. They help agricultural areas of the “Hauts-Bassins”, the “Cascades” and the “Boucle du Mouhoun”. They are the biggest cotton producing zones of Burkina Faso and the major users of agricultural pesticides. The “Hauts-Bassins”, the Correspondence address: “Boucle du Mouhoun” and the “Cascades” regions had a Assoc. Prof. Adama Makoum Toe population of 1 389 258 inhabitants, 1 478 392 inhabitants, Research Institute of Health Sciences, and 430 677 inhabitants, respectively in 2006, i.e. about Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique 23% of the national population. Survey sites were selected Avenue du Capitaine Thomas Sankara, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso E-MAIL: [email protected] on the basis of their agro-climatic characteristics, their 186 Agricultural pesticide poisoning in Burkina Faso Adama M. Toe, Mustapha Ouedraogo, Richard Ouedraogo, Sylvain Ilboudo, Pierre I. Guissou geographic situation, the extent of cultivated crops such Group I: Less than 1000 m2 as cotton, maize and rice on which pesticides were highly Group II: Between 1000 and 2500 m2 used. The sites were selected on the basis of the above- Group III: Between 2500 and 5000 m2 mentioned criteria (Figure 1). Group IV: More than 5000 m2 Design of the study The total number of farms per department and the Relevant administrative and technical services were number of farms of each group was assessed in order to do contacted to collect preliminary data on the number of the sampling. The representativeness (group coefficient) farms and their different categories. On the basis of the of each group in the department was calculated on the data obtained, a random sampling was done to identify basis of the total number of farms per group as follows: persons to be surveyed. Prospective studies were conducted to monitor Number of farms in the group agricultural producers during pesticide application Total number of farms in the department operations and to identify weaknesses and strengths of producers’ pesticide management (type of pesticide, To determine the number of farms from each group safety measures, management of agro-chemical stocks, that should be part of the fifty farms selected for the left-over pesticides). sampling, we multiplied 50 by the group coefficient. As for epidemiological data from pesticide-related poi- All the healthcare centers of the survey sites were soning, a retrospective study was done. It was conducted systemically included to the study. from June to July, 2010. All pesticide-related poisoning cases admitted in healthcare centers from January 2002 Investigations among farmers and healthcare centers to June 2010 were included. Investigations among farmers consisted in collecting In each department (survey site), farmers of fifty data on pesticides used by farmers and their attitude farms were selected. In order to take into consideration when poisoning by pesticides would occur. In healthcare the different categories of agricultural producers, a strati- centers, surveys aimed to record poisoning incidents. fied sampling based on the size of the farms was created. The investigations were designed to collect reliable and Based on the size of farms, the following four groups were well-documented information. Following a questionnaire, taken into account: interviews were conducted among healthcare agents to record and describe poisoning incidents caused by pesticides. Data processing and analysis BURKINA FASO 21.. KBaoduilokigeomde After the perusal of survey sheets, data were codified, Soum Oudalan 43.. KOouubrrwiteenoggao entered and analyzed using the data management soft- LLoorroouumm Seno BanwKaossiMouhoSNuonauyroaulSSaaaYnnaZZggtuuooeiinnneeddgPooamma1saasOOoruue4aaBggBaaaam2zSSddeaa3oognnauummGGggaattaaooeennnnuuNNzzggooaaaauummrrKKggeeoonnoouuttuueerrnniittggeeGaannnggaaagnaYKGaoogmuhoramndajari Tapoa wsuamrem Eaprii zInedfo i n3.t3o. 2d easncdr iEpxticveel s2t0a0ti7s tsiocfst.ware. Results were KKeenneeddoouuggoouuHouet TuyBaIoleba SissiliZiro NZZaoohuuonnuddrwwieeooBggoooulgouKoulpelogoKompienga LLeerraabbaa BBoouuggoouurriibbaa Comoe Poni Results NNoouummbbiieell Study area Risk factors of poisoning A total of 650 farmers distributed in 16 villages of the three TANSILA regions studied were surveyed. Pesticides were mostly DEDOUGOU handled by men. In fact, 98.3% of the surveyed persons SOLENZO SAFANE FARAMANA involved in the application of pesticides were men. The N'DOROLA KAYAN average age of the farmers was 39.58±10.30 years. The youngest person involved in pesticide application opera- BAMA HOUNDE BANZON KOUMBIA tions was 17 years old and the oldest one was 75; 15.3% of BOBO-DIOULASSO the farmers were more than 50 years old. One hundred and fifty-three (153) pest control prod- LOUMANA DOUNA Selected departments ucts (pesticides) were recorded during the survey and 56 NIANKORODOUGOU Other departments active ingredients were identified (Table 1). Out of the 153 pest control products, 49 (i.e. 32%) were authorized for sale by the Sahelian Pesticide Committee, hence in Burkina Faso. Pesticides of classes I , II, III and IV (WHO 200000 0 200000 Kilometers b classification) were indistinctly used. The main categories of pesticides found were herbicides, insecticides and fun- Figure 1. Departments hosting survey sites. gicides. The majority of the surveyed population (60.5%) had no education at all, 31.8% of them had primary ISSN: 1337-6853 (print version) | 1337-9569 (electronic version) Interdisciplinary Toxicology. 2013; Vol. 6(4): 185–191 187 Also available online on PubMed Central Table 1. Pesticide formulations which were identified during the survey among dealers. Active Pesticide WHO Sources of Active Pesticide WHO Sources of Formulation ingredients category Class chemicals Formulation ingredients category Class chemicals Acetochlore Prometryne ACEPRONET 400 Herbicide III China Prometryne CALLIFOR G Fluometuron Herbicide III SAPHYTO Pyrimiphos-methyl Glyphosate ACTELLIC SUPER Insecticide France Permethrine CALLIHERB 2,4 D of amine salt Herbicide SAPHYTO ACTELLIC 50 Pyrimiphos-methyl Insecticide III Switzerland CALLIMAN 80 WP Manebe Fongicide Callivoire Pyrimiphos-methyl ACTELLIC SUPER Insecticide SAPHYTO CALLITRAZ 90 WG Atrazine Herbicide SAPHYTO Permethrine CALLOXONE SUPER Paraquat Insecticide SAPHYTO ACTION 80 DF Diuron Herbicide SCAB Propanil ADWUMA WURA Glyphosate Herbicide China CALRIZ Herbicide SAPHYTO Trichlopyr ADWUMA WURA 75.7% Glyphosate Herbicide China Chlorpyrifos-ethyl CALTHIO C Insecticide SAPHYTO/FASOCOTON ADWUMAMU HENE Glyphosate Herbicide Thirame Lindane AGRAZINE 500 Atrazine Herbicide China CALTHIO DS Insecticide SAPHYTO Thirame AGRAZINE 80 WP Atrazine Herbicide France/China Endosulfan CALTHIO E Insecticide SCAB AGRAZINE 90 Atrazine Herbicide China/France Thirame Acetamipride AGRAZINE DF Atrazine Herbicide France CAPT 80 EC Insecticide SAPHYTO Cypermethrine AKIZON 40 SC Nicosulfuron Herbicide III France Acetamipride CAPT 88 EC Insecticide II Ivory Coast /ALM ALLIGATOR 400 EC Pendimethaline Herbicide III France Cypermethrine Metalaxyl-M CARBODAN 3% G Carbofuran Insecticide Makhteshim Agan France APRON PLUS 50 DS Carboxine Insecticide CELTACAL 12,5 EC Deltamethrine Insecticide SAPHYTO Furathiocarbe Profenofos Thiamethoxam CIGOGNE Insecticide STEPC Abidjan Cypermethrine APRON STAR 42 WS Metalaxyl-M Insecticide Switzerland S-Metolachlore Difenoconazole CODAL gold 412,5 DC Herbicide III SAPHYTO/SYNGENTA Prometryne ATRAHERB Atrazine Herbicide China Cypermethrine CONQUEST C 88 EC Insecticide II SAPHYTO ATRALM 500 Atrazine Herbicide SENEFURA/SCAB Acetamipride ATRALM 90 Atrazine Herbicide SENEFURA CONQUEST C 176 EC Acetamipride Insecticide II SAPHYTO Cypermethrine ATRAVIC 500 SC Atrazine Herbicide SAPHYTO Metolachlore COTODON PLUS 500 EC Herbicide III NOVARTIS ATRAZ 50 Atrazine Herbicide Cantonments Accra Atrazine ATRAZ 80 WP Atrazine Herbicide SARO AGROCHEM Metolachlore COTONET 500 EC Herbicide DTE SA Chine Terbutryne ATRAZILA 500 Atrazine Herbicide Kumark Trading Ent. CURACRON 500 EC Profenofos Insecticide III SOFITEX Shenzhen Baocheng Chemi- ATRAZILA 80 WP Atrazine Herbicide cal industry co. Ltd CYPERCAL 25 EC Cypermethrine Insecticide SAPHYTO ATRAZINE Atrazine Herbicide Japan CYPERCAL 50 EC Cypermethrine Insecticide III SAPHYTO ATRAZINE WEEDICIDE Atrazine Herbicide Japan Profenofos CYPERCAL P 690 EC Insecticide II SAPHYTO AVAUNT 150 EC Indoxacarb Insecticide II SOFITEX/SAPHYTO Cypermethrine Cypermethrine Bayer crop science Propanil CYPERPHOS Insecticide BACCARA 335 EC Herbicide SAPHYTO Triazophos Bayer crop science 2,4 D CYRENS 480 EC Chlorpyrifos-ethyl Insecticide SAVANA BENAXONE SUPER Paraquat Herbicide Bentronic Productions CalliGhana/Ghana Bentronic DECIS Deltamethrine Insecticide STEPC/Bayer crop science BEXTRA 2,4 D Herbicide Production DECTACOL 12,5 Deltamethrine Insecticide SAPHYTO BISTAR 10 WP Bifenthrine Insecticide II DIAFURAN Carbofuran Insecticide SAPHYTO Lambdacyhalothrine BLAST 46 EC Insecticide SAPHYTO DIGA FAGALAN 360 SL Glyphosate Herbicide III PROPHYMA/SAVANA Acetamipride Endosulfan DIURALM 80 WG Diuron Herbicide III SENEFURA/ALM CAIMAN ROUGE Insecticide II SOFITEX/SSI Thirame DOMINEX 100 Alpha cypermethrine Insecticide Alphacypermethrine CAIMAN SUPER Insecticide SSI DUREXA Chlorpyrifos-ethyl Insecticide SAPHYTO Endosulfan ENDOCOTON 500 EC Endosulfan Insecticide Ib SAPHYTO CALFOS 500 EC Profenofos Insecticide II SAPHYTO FANGA 500 EC Profenofos Insecticide II SENEFURA Prometryne CALLIFOR Herbicide SAPHYTO Fluometuron FOCUS GLYPHOSATE 360 SL Glyphosate Herbicide SOFITEX Prometryne BASF/Tech Agro Inter- CALLIFOR 500 Herbicide III SAPHYTO FOCUS Ultra 100 EC Cycloxydime Herbicide III Fluometuron national Copyright © 2013 SETOX & Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, SASc. 188 Agricultural pesticide poisoning in Burkina Faso Adama M. Toe, Mustapha Ouedraogo, Richard Ouedraogo, Sylvain Ilboudo, Pierre I. Guissou Table 1 - cont. Pesticide formulations which were identified during the survey among dealers. Active Pesticide WHO Sources of Active Pesticide WHO Sources of Formulation ingredients category Class chemicals Formulation ingredients category Class chemicals FURADAN 5G Carbofuran Insecticide SCAB/FMC MALIK 108 EC Haloxyfop-R-methyl Herbicide III SAVANA FUSILADE Fluazifop-p-butyl Herbicide III SCAB MALO BINFAGA 2,4 D Herbicide II SAVANA Clomazone MILSATE Glyphosate Herbicide Topaz Multi industrie Ghana GALAXY 450 EC Herbicide SENEFURA/SAPHYTO Pendimethaline MITOX Fenvalerate Insecticide Bentronic Productions GALLANT SUPER Haloxyfop-R-methyl Herbicide III Callivoire Imidaclopride Trichlopyr MOMTAZ 45 WS Insecticide III PROPHYMA/SAVANA GARIL 432 EC Herbicide II SAPHYTO Thirame Propanil NICOMAIS 40 Nicosulfuron Herbicide III PROPHYMA/SAVANA Top phyt/ Topex Agro GLYCEL 410 SL Glyphosate Herbicide II Elevage Developpement NWURA WURA Glyphosate Herbicide SARL CONAKRY OXARIZ 250 EC Oxadiazon Herbicide III SAVANA GLYPHADER Glyphosate Herbicide SCAB Lambdacyhalothrine PACHA 25 EC Insecticide II SAVANA GLYPHADER 480 Glyphosate Herbicide Golden stork Acetamipride GLYPHADER 75 Glyphosate Herbicide III SCAB PHOSTOXIN Phosphure d’alumine Insecticide Kumark Trading Ent. GLYPHALM 500 WG Glyphosate Herbicide III SENEFURA/ALM POWER Glyphosate Herbicide GLYPHALM 360 SL Glyphosate Herbicide III SENEFURA/ALM POWER GLYPHOSATE Glyphosate Herbicide 480I._P.A GLYPHALM 720 Glyphosate Herbicide SENEFURA Atrazine PRIMAGRAM 360 Herbicide SYNGENTA GLYPHONET 360 SL Glyphosate Herbicide III DTE SA Chine S-Metalochlore GLYSATE Glyphosate Herbicide Yaw wussma Ventures PROTECTOR Lambdacyhalothrine Insecticide SENEFURA, SOFITEX/AF- Pyriproxyfene Chem SOFACO-CI GRAMOQUAT SUPER Paraquat chloride Insecticide Kumark Trading Ent. RISTAR Oxadiazon Herbicide SCAB GRAMOXONE SUPER Paraquat Insecticide II SCAB RIZTOP 250 EC Oxadiazon Herbicide SAPHYTO HALONET SUPER 104 EC Haloxyfop-R-methyl Herbicide III DTE SA Chine Endosulfan HERBALM 2,4 D of amine salt Herbicide SENEFURA/ALM Inter- ROCKY 386 EC Cypermethrine Insecticide III SAPHYTO national Oxadiazon SCAB, Kumark Trading RONSTAR PL Herbicide SAPHYTO/Bayer crop science HERBEXTRA 720 SL 2,4 D of amine salt Herbicide II Propanil Ent., SSI ROUNDUP 360 SL Glyphosate Herbicide III SCAB HERBEXTRA 750 SL 2,4 D of amine salt Herbicide SCAB Acetochlore ROUNDUP 680 Glyphosate Herbicide SCAB HERBISUPER Herbicide II SCAB Atrazine ROUNDUP 680 BIOSEC Glyphosate Herbicide SCAB Atrazine HERBIMAIS Herbicide SCAB ROUNDUP TURBO Glyphosate Herbicide III SCAB Nicosulfuron SAMORY Bensulfuron-methyl Herbicide III SCAB Alphacypermethrine IBIS A Insecticide SCAB/SSI Acetamipride SELECT 120 EC Clethodim Herbicide III SAPHYTO IBIS P Alphacypermethrine Insecticide SSI SHARP Glyphosate Herbicide Kumark Trading Ent. Profenofos SHARP 80 g/L Glyphosate Herbicide IKOKADIGNE Haloxyfop-R-methyl Herbicide II SCAB SHYE NWURA Glyphosate Herbicide KALACH 360 SL Glyphosate Herbicide III SAPHYTO/CalliGhana Natosh Enterprise AGRO- SINOSATE Glyphosate Herbicide KALACH EXTRA 70 SG Glyphosate Herbicide III SAPHYTO DIVISION Ghana KAMAXONE Paraquat Insecticide Kumasi/Ghana STOMP Pendimethaline Herbicide SENEFURA/BASF KART 500 SP Cartap Insecticide II STEPC STOMP 500 EC Pendimethaline Herbicide SOFITEX KOMBAT Lambdacyhalothrine Insecticide SARO SUPRAXONE Paraquat Insecticide Golden stork KUAPA WARA Glyphosate Herbicide TARGA SUPER 50 Quizalofop-p-éthyl Herbicide SAPHYTO/SOFITEX KUM NWURA Glyphosate Herbicide TEMPRA Diuron Herbicide SAPHYTO Isoxaflutol TERMICAL 480 EC Chlorpyrifos-ethyl Insecticide SAPHYTO LAGON 380 SC Herbicide III STEPC/Bayer crop science Aclonifene Spirotetramate TIHAN 175 O-TEQ Insecticide III SCAB/Bayer crop science LAMBDA SUPER Lambdacyhalothrine Insecticide SCAB, Kumark Trading Ent. Flubendiamide LAMBDACAL P 212 EC Profenofos Insecticide II SAPHYTO TITAN 25 EC Acetamipride Insecticide SAPHYTO Lambdacyhalothrine TOPSTAR Oxadiargyl Herbicide III SCAB, SAPHYTO Profenofos LAMBDACAL P 636 EC Insecticide II SOFITEX Lambdacyhalothrine TOUCHDOWN Glyphosate Herbicide SYNGENTA Lambdacyhalothrine TOUCHDOWN HI TECH Glyphosate Herbicide LAMDEX 430 EC Insecticide II Makhteshim Chemical Works Chlorpyrifos-ethyl TRAZINE Atrazine Herbicide Bentronic Productions Atrazine LASSO Alachlore Herbicide III SCAB/Candel WEED FAST Glyphosate Herbicide WEYOUNG CW Kumassi ISSN: 1337-6853 (print version) | 1337-9569 (electronic version) Interdisciplinary Toxicology. 2013; Vol. 6(4): 185–191 189 Also available online on PubMed Central education, and 7.7% had a secondary education level. Thirty-nine percent of the farmers had less than 10 years’ 14 12.62 experience in pesticide use, whereas 54% had between 10 12 and 30 years’ experience. Our study showed that the pesticide application equip- 10 8.92 ment used was mainly backpack sprayers with a volume e capacity of 10 to 20 liters (in 96% of cases) and Ultra Low ag 8 Volume sprayers (ULV) or Ultra Bas Volume (UBV) spray- ent ers with a volume capacity ranging from 1 to 5 liters (4% Perc 6 of cases). 4 3.08 Some of the farmers (24.45%) reported not having any left-over pesticides as they knew the exact quantities 2 1.85 1.54 0.93 0.77 0.46 required for treatment. Most of the surveyed farmers 0 (69.12%) kept their unused pesticides for further applica- MB GMB GM GB GMBO GMBOL MBO GBO tions. They stored them at their place or in the fields. A Protective gears few of them declared dumping them into nature (4.86%) Figure 2. Percentage of farmers (involved in the application of or burying them (1.72%). pesticides) wearing combination of protective gears. The individual protective equipments that were MB: masks + boots; GMB: gloves + masks + boots; GM: gloves widely used by farmers were masks (40% of farmers use + masks; GB: gloves + boots; GMBO: gloves + masks + boots + overall; GMBOG: gloves + masks + boots + overall + glasses; them) followed by boots (28.8%), while overalls tend to MBO: mask + boots + overall; GBO: gloves + boots + overall. be seldom used (4.5%). Only rarely did the farmers use a combination of two or more protective gears (Figure 2). Very few farmers have full protection (0.93%). The majority of the farmers (67.5%) reported having a 60 watering place in their fields or less than 100 meters from the fields; 13.63% of the farmers had a watering place 50 situated between 100 and 500 meters from the fields. 40 The survey revealed that water from 50% of the water- %) ing places was used for human consumption, 29.26% for e ( nc 30 diluting pesticides, and 26.96% for animal consumption. ale v e Pr 20 Types of ailments aff ecting farmers Figure 3 shows the distribution of the different types of 10 ailments affecting farmers during or just after pesticide application. The majority of the surveyed farmers (82.66%) 0 reported having experienced, at least on one occasion, a Central Dermal Respiratory Gastro- Ocular No nervous affections affections intestinal affections symptoms feeling of ill-health during or just after pesticide applica- system affections tions. The exposure routes were dermal, respiratory, ocular and oral (Figure 4). Figure 3. Distribution of farmers according to the type of ail- ments (reported by them) during or just after pesticide applica- tion in the fi elds. Management of poisoning incidents by farmers Table 2 summarizes the farmers’ attitude when poisoning incident would occur. 14% Poisoning data Ocular route 7% A total of 42 healthcare centers were covered by the study, Oral route of which 40 health and social advancement centers and Dermal route 49% Respiratory route two health centers with surgical facilities (CMA). About 922 cases of pesticide poisoning (without detailed infor- mation) were reported. Pesticide poisoning cases reported with brief information included intoxication cases for 30% which basic information is available. The information provided is related to the identity of the injured person (sex Figure 4. Exposure routes to pesticides reported by surveyed and age), the incident circumstance and its outcome. A farmers. total of 81 recorded poisoning cases fell into this category. The majority of victims were women (70.37%). The largest proportion of victims were adults (>19 years old) (54.33%), not be identified. The majority of poisoning cases (53%) 19.75% were children (<14 years old), and 17.28% adoles- were due to unintentional ingestion of pesticides. It was cents (14–19 years old). In 8.84% of the cases, age could reported that 28% of the cases were intentional (suicide) Copyright © 2013 SETOX & Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, SASc. 190 Agricultural pesticide poisoning in Burkina Faso Adama M. Toe, Mustapha Ouedraogo, Richard Ouedraogo, Sylvain Ilboudo, Pierre I. Guissou and 19% of the cases occurred while using pesticides in Discussion fields. As shown in Figure 5, the number of poisoning cases increased annually. The majority of victims, i.e. Certain behaviors and practices were identified to pre- 80.25%, recovered whereas in 10% of cases poisoning was dispose to pesticide exposure and illness. The majority of fatal. In 9.75% of cases, the outcome was unknown. Out the farmers using pesticides were relatively young (mean of the 42 surveyed health officers, 20 (47.62%) declared age 39.58 years). However, some were old, i.e. more than not having much knowledge about pesticides, while 22 50 years old (15.3%). This raises some concerns as it is (52.37%) knew some facts about pesticides. known that the functional capacity of human vital organs, such as kidneys, decreases with age. Consequently, old age contributes to increase health risks related to the exposure of pesticides (Klaasen, 2007). The large number of pesticides (153 products) used 30 by farmers (which were often banned) could be factors 26 es 25 contributing to health risks of pesticides (Mansour, 2004). as Farmers usually combined insecticides of different classes c ns 20 in a single spray. Overall the level of education of the o ati surveyed farmers was low (more than 60% of them are illit- oxic 15 14 12 14 erates). They cannot read labels and follow recommended nt of i 10 instructions for the proper use of pesticides. This fact does ber 7 5 hinder the implementation of a scheme aimed at reducing m 5 health risks. However, farmers who have acquired literacy Nu 1 0 2 in the indigenous language can constitute an asset for the 0 community. As a matter of fact, training programs on the Unknown 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 mid-2010 manadn pagroemvidenedt ainnd t hper olpoecra lu lsaen ogfu paegset. iSciudcehs pcarong brea mdess cigonueldd Year of occurence initially target a restricted number of individuals who will eventually be requested to take over training among the Figure 5. Distribution of the number of intoxication cases according to the year of occurrence. other members of the community. The study showed that the extent of the farmers’ experience related to the use of pesticides varied consid- erably. About 54% of the farmers had between 10 and 30 Table 2. Farmers’ attitudes when intoxication incident would occur. years’ experience. This is very significant and indicates chronic exposure among these farmers (Konradsen, 2007). Attitudes Number Percentages Contrary to the idea that experience can be an asset, we Drinking milk 54 8.32 found that pesticide operators with the longest experience Drinking tamarind juice 15 2.31 did not necessarily give the best example (Ouédraogo et Drinking lemon juice 13 2.00 al., 2009). They were applying pesticides without personal protective equipments on the pretense that there were no Drinking sour juice 1 0.15 risks in handling pesticides. Drinking juice 2 0.31 The conclusion drawn on pesticide management prac- Drinking coffee 2 0.31 tices among farmers is that the careless habit of storing Taking acetaminophen 1 0.15 pesticides at home severely exposes family members to Ingest charcoal and vomit 1 0.15 risks in terms of health, while discharging them into the environment or burying them inevitably leads to environ- Go to healthcare center (CSPS) 25 3.85 mental contamination. Get rid of 7 1.08 Pesticide application equipments used by the farmers Rub herself/himself with lemon leaves 20 3.08 were portable equipments which are manually operated. Rub herself/himself with sorrel leaves 1 0.15 This situation also predisposed farmers to pesticide Rub herself/himself with vines 1 0.15 exposure. In India, it was found that tractor mounted techniques were only for big farms; the most commonly Apply ointment 1 0.15 used equipment was hand-carried lever operated knapsack Apply shea-butter 43 6.62 sprayer, which is not a very well designed mounted tech- Wash with soap 540 83.20 nique (Abhilash & Singh, 2009). Wash with potash soap 8 1.23 The scarce use of personal protective equipment and the Wash with warm water 1 0.15 tendency to have only partial protection inevitably leads to high exposure risks among pesticide applicators (Figure 2). Wash with salted water 1 0.15 Protection was usually incomplete, which outlines the Suck sugar 1 0.15 different set of personal protective equipment worn by No answer 8 1.23 farmers during pesticide applications. Less than 1% of the ISSN: 1337-6853 (print version) | 1337-9569 (electronic version) Interdisciplinary Toxicology. 2013; Vol. 6(4): 185–191 191 Also available online on PubMed Central farmers (0.93%) had full protection. The vicinity of water- are highly or moderately toxic. Pesticide poisonings were ing sources to fields increases the risks of water contami- relatively frequent. The most important policy change to nation by pesticides released through different mediums. reduce mortality from acute pesticide poisoning would be Pesticides belonging to the WHO class I are highly to phase out the most toxic chemicals, namely the WHO b hazardous and can be used only by certified and trained class I and II pesticides, and substitute them with less toxic applicators and under close supervision. The use of such groups of pesticides. Moreover, agricultural policies must products should be strictly forbidden to farmers who reduce the use of pesticides to the lowest level feasible. have no training, who do not have appropriate personal Actions are needed to reduce pesticide poisoning as a protective equipment and who tend to underestimate global public health problem and to improve management pesticide-related hazards (WHO, 2004). Pesticides of Class of pesticide poisoning. To this purpose, advanced investi- II are considered as moderately hazardous and their use gations should be carried out over a longer period of time is restricted to trained applicators under close supervision to complement the present pilot study. who strictly comply with recommended precautionary measures. Some pesticides of WHO Class III were used; they are rated as slightly hazardous and can be used by trained Acknowledgements applicators who comply with recommended precautionary measures. Well-trained farmers who would comply with The authors gratefully acknowledge: recommended patterns of use and safety requirements • The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed should be able to handle these products with no major risk Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous of intoxication. Pesticides of WHO class IV do not present Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade who acute hazards under normal use (WHO, 2004). Complying funded this project; both with restrictions of use and precautionary measures is • The FAO Representation officers in Burkina Faso for a way for pesticide applicators to ensure their safety. their technical and administrative support; Most farmers (82.66%) complained of discomfort dur- • The technical officers of the Ministry in charge of ing or just after pesticide applications while 17.34% of them Agriculture of Burkina Faso for the help and facilities never felt anything. Ailments affecting the central nervous provided for the effective conduct of the study. system (experienced by 48.92% of farmers) were most reported by the farmers. As a matter of fact, exposure to insecticides is known to have severe adverse effects on the nervous system (Multinigner, 2005; Toe et al., 2012). REFERENCES As shown in table 2, a large proportion of farmers had recourse to traditional medicine when intoxication Abhilash PC, Singh, N. (2009). Pesticide use and application: An Indian sce- incident would occur. This is not surprising as it is known nario. J Hazard Mater 165: 1–12. that 80% of the populations in developing countries use Domo Y. (1996). Étude épidémiologique des intoxications aux pesticides dans la province cotonnière du Mouhoun au Burkina Faso, Faculté des Sci- medicinal plants to cure themselves (OMS, 2002). Only ences de la Santé. Université de Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou, p. 89. 3.08% of farmers would go to healthcare service centers. Klaasen CD. (2007). Casarett & Doull’s Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. The majority of the acute-poisoned patients were McGraw-Hill, New York. females and adults; this could be explained by the high Konradsen F. (2007). Acute pesticide poisoning – a global public health prob- lem. Dan Med Bull 54: 58–59. prevalence of illiteracy among females in developing Lee WJ, Cha ES. (2009). Overview of Pesticide Poisoning in South Korea. J Ru- countries. Moreover, adults have free access to pesticides in ral Med 4: 53–58. rural areas. In fact, like in other developing countries, any- MAHRH. (2007). Document guide de la révolution verte, Ouagadougou, p. 98. one is allowed to buy, handle and apply toxic agricultural Mansour SA. (2004). Pesticide exposure-Egyptian scene. Toxicology 198: 91–115. chemicals without any necessary safety procedures (Lee & Multinigner L. (2005). Delayed eff ects of pesticides on human health / Eff ets Cha, 2009). Thus majority of cases of pesticide poisoning retardés des pesticides sur la santé humaine. Environ Risque Santé 4: 187–194. cases were accidental (53%). The lethality due to pesticides OMS. (2002). Stratégie de l’OMS pour la Médecine Traditionnelle pour 2002– 2005, p. 78. poisoning was relatively high (about 10%); this could be Ouédraogo M, Tankoano A, Ouédraogo ZT, Guissou IP. (2009). Etude des explained by the inappropriate first aid attitude and the facteurs de risques d’intoxications chez les utilisateurs de pesticides dans delay in admittance to healthcare centers. la région cotonnière de Fada N’Gourma au Burkina Faso. Environ Risque Santé 8: 343–347. Toe AM, Guissou IP, Héma OS. (2002). Contribution à la Toxicologie AgroIn- dustrielle au Burkina Faso. Étude des intoxications d’agriculteurs par des Conclusion pesticides en zone cotonnière du Mouhoun. Résultats, analyse et proposi- tions de prise en charge du problème. Rev Med Trav 29: 59–64. Toe AM, Ilboudo S, Ouedraogo, M, Guissou IP. (2012). Biological alterations Particular socio-demographic factors, such as female sex, and self-reported symptoms among insecticides-exposed workers in elderly age, and low education were related to increased Burkina Faso. Interdiscip Toxicol 5: 101–105. risk of pesticides. Some attitudes and practices of farmers Toe AM, Kinane ML. (2004). Les pesticides au Burkina Faso/ Pesticides in Burkina Faso, Dakar-Fann. were also identified to predispose to agricultural pesticide Van Der Valk H, Diarra A. (2000). Pesticide use and management in the Afri- exposure and illness in Burkina Faso. The management of can Sahel-An overview. Études et Recherches Sahéliennes 4–5: 13–27. agricultural pesticides in Burkina Faso was complicated WHO. (2004). WHO Recommended Classifi cation of Pesticides by Hazard and by the number of different classes of pesticides which Guidelines to Classifi cation, in: World Health Organization (Ed.). Copyright © 2013 SETOX & Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, SASc.