PHYSICS of STRENGTH and FRACTURE CONTROL Adaptation of Engineering Materials and Structures PHYSICS of STRENGTH and FRACTURE CONTROL Adaptation of Engineering Materials and Structures Author Anatoly A. Komarovsky Scientific Editor Viktor P. Astakhov CRC PR ESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. 1151 disclaimer Page 1 Friday, August 2, 2002 11:28 AM Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Komarovsky, Anatoly A. Physics of strength and fracture control : adaptation of engineering materials and structures / Anatoly A. Komarovsky ; scientific editor, Viktor P. Astakhov. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-1151-9 (alk. paper) 1.Strength of materials. 2. Fracture mechanics. I. Astakhov, Viktor P. II. Title. TA405 .K555 2002 620.1′12—dc21 2002066454 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2003 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-1151-9 Library of Congress Card Number 2002066454 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper 1151_Frame_FM Page 5 Friday, August 2, 2002 1:29 PM Preface Modern engineering materials and structures operate on the ground, under the water, and in space, at normal, high and cryogenic temperatures, in aggressive environments, and under conditions of intensive radiation. Requirements for their strength, reliability, and durability continuously increase.1,2 Engineering and applied sciences try to solve multiple problems associated with these requirements using mechanical–mathematical meth- ods rather than physical methods.3,4 This practice imposes substantial limi- tations on the level of technogenic safety of engineering objects already achieved and does not lead to improvements in many technological pro- cesses associated with engineering materials. Although the prospects for developing engineering materials are corre- lated to solid-state physics,5 the related aspects of this science are insuffi- ciently elaborated.6,7 As a result, the gap grows between improving the durability of engineering materials and structures and increasing require- ments for their safety and reliability, and the corresponding scientific and technical support to meet these challenges. Developed at a time when only invariable or slowly varying force fields were considered, many existing concepts of the physical nature of resistance of solids to different combina- tions of external effects are obsolete.3 According to data presented by Kluev,3 technogenic accidents and catas- trophes resulting in economic losses amounting to $2 billion occur every 10 to 15 years on average; those with losses of up to $100 million occur every 14 to 15 days. Technical progress and inadequacy of traditional methods for ensuring reliable service conditions lead to a 10 to 30% increase in these losses annually. Moreover, for critical objects, they are aggravated by envi- ronmental, moral, and social consequences. From today’s standpoint, this means that standard methods of ensuring strength, reliability, and durability have already exhausted their potential. The development of these methods follows a curve with negative first and second derivatives. The time when a qualitatively new stage in the develop- ment of design methods should be introduced to support technical progress has passed. Because existing methods and concepts have no reserves left, qual- itatively new principles of ensuring technogenic safety need to be introduced. This book demonstrates that the advances in modern physics that became evident in the mid-20th century form a reliable and sufficient ground for revising common notions of the nature of resistance of solids to diverse exter- nal fields (force, thermal, radiation, etc.) and aggressive environments. The book formulates, and then theoretically and experimentally proves, new con- cepts to control deformation and fracture. It offers methods for inhibition of 1151_Frame_FM Page 6 Friday, August 2, 2002 1:29 PM fracture and reconditioning of damaged structures; a number of nontraditional methods are developed and applied to solve typical practical problems. This book introduces a new physical concept in the development of the science of resistance of materials to external effects. At its core, the proposed approach has the thermodynamic state of solids equation derived by the author. The book demonstrates that the system of ensuring reliability and durability of engineering structures commonly used today is at an embryonic stage of its development and thus still passive and uncontrollable. The current system is not able to provide corrections or replenishments to the used part of the service life of engineering materials and structures. As a result, failures of engineering materials and structures can be neither pre- dicted nor avoided, thus leading to “unpredictable” accidents and catastro- phes. In contrast to this existing system, the concept suggested in the book allows controllability of the stressed–deformed state of materials and struc- tures by activating or preventing undesirable deformations and fractures. This work develops a new stage in the science of materials strength and provides an introduction to the theory of adapting materials and structures to operating conditions based on physical principles of leading-edge tech- nologies. It introduces new avenues for industries dealing with advanced technologies and products for the improvement of technogenic safety of engineering objects, as well as for the reduction of power consumption of special technological processes. It also discusses practical, but nontraditional, methods of solving many typical problems. The book is intended for a wide range of readers specializing in the fields of solid-state physics, statistical physics, thermodynamics, materials science, manufacturing technology and processing of structural materials, technol- ogy for production and processing of mineral resources, resistance of mate- rials to various external loads, quality of parts and structures, reliability and durability of machines and mechanisms, etc. Thus, all who are directly or indirectly involved in the activation (as in metal cutting) or elimination (engineering structures) of deformation and fracture will find the informa- tion useful. It is also very helpful for students because it covers the funda- mental aspects of the physics of solids and their resistance to external energy fields and aggressive environments. Anatoly A. Komarovsky 1151_Frame_FM Page 7 Friday, August 2, 2002 1:29 PM Preface of the Scientific Editor Background To be practical and efficient, materials simulations should be based on proper understanding of the physics of materials; moreover, a way to “con- vert” such understanding into a mathematical model should be clearly indi- cated. Unfortunately, this has not yet occurred. Currently, the approach to this problem is to create new materials research centers and laboratories supported by industry and by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The results obtained thus far are not encouraging. This book explains why solution of actual problems in physics and engi- neering of materials within the scope of traditional ideas is not possible, regardless of the amount of money granted by NSF or invested by industry. Using numerous examples, this book demonstrates the drawbacks of existing approaches to the mechanics of material and mechanical metallurgy. Atten- tion is drawn to the fact that well-known books on the subject pay little attention to the physics of materials resistance to various external effects (external forces, fields, etc.). Although existing books consider a number of microlevel phenomena, including the property of AM bonds, dislocations, etc., the relation between the microphysics and macrophysics of materials, which defines their actual behavior, is explained qualitatively and thus cannot be used in practice. Handbooks, reference books, engineering manuals, and standards on the engineering calculations of the strength of parts and structures do not follow advances in materials science. Not one essential property has been added in the last 50 years to the known properties of materials available to a designer. (One can see this on the most popular Web site for materials properties, www.matweb.com.) As a result, design methodology based on failure cri- teria (largely obtained in the 19th century) and an enormous “safety factor” (that costs billions and “covers” lack of knowledge of materials) prevails in practice. This book pioneers a new direction in materials science. For the first time, a physical explanation of the strength of materials is offered. The book is multidisciplinary and should be of great interest to all specialists concerned with materials and their properties, design of parts and structures, durability, and reliability. 1151_Frame_FM Page 8 Friday, August 2, 2002 1:29 PM The Aim of This Book The ultimate goal of this book is to achieve full understanding of the physics of solid matter through the derived equation of the state of a solid. Using this equation as the basis, this book aims to describe the interaction of a solid with external energy fields. Another essential goal is to suggest new methods to control failure of solids under a full diversity of service conditions. This book demonstrates that physical–mechanical properties can be con- trolled from the point of design of a material to the point of fulfilling specific consumer functions, at the stage of solidification and processing, and during service periods of machines and mechanisms. At the first two stages the control functions are performed by passive or materials science methods, whereas at the last stage they are achieved by using active energy methods. Fundamentals of technology for making materials with preset properties in this book will be of interest to materials scientists involved in the develop- ment of advanced materials. In addition to solving a direct problem, i.e., control of the structure-formation or destructive processes, the suggested approach allows an inverse problem, i.e., prediction, to be handled success- fully. The book clarifies physical principles of operation and advantages and disadvantages of existing methods of technical diagnostics and nondestruc- tive testing, as well as ways of expanding their capabilities. It also indicates guidelines for development of new, advanced methods for prediction of the technical state of materials and structures. This will be particularly interest- ing to specialists involved in the development and application of methods of technical diagnostics and nondestructive testing, reliability, and durability of engineering objects and their components. In general, knowing the trends in a specific science and technology area widens the horizons for those working in the area and is very helpful to other specialists. Why One Needs This Book This book is essential for understanding how structural materials behave in reality in various external fields and aggressive environments, for under- standing how to control the processes of deformation and fracture of solids, and, finally, to build high-reliability engineering objects whose structural components can be adapted to operating conditions. It will not answer all questions about materials, but it will supply knowledge about the physical nature and behavior of materials. Using this knowledge can provide the answers to many theoretical and practical problems. Viktor P. Astakhov 1151_Frame_FM Page 9 Friday, August 2, 2002 1:29 PM Acknowledgments I was extremely fortunate that Viktor P. Astakhov kindly agreed to be the scientific editor of this book. As initiator of its publication and a great advisor during the course of its preparation, he made many useful comments and suggestions regarding content, structure, and presentation of major ideas. His incredible engineering sense and broad interdisciplinary knowledge about materials and their technology and about technical physics and applied mathematics helped me enormously in clarifying content. I am deeply grate- ful to Dr. Zelnichenko for his coordination of the translation of this book into English and to Mrs. T.K. Vassilenko and Ms. Kutianova for their trans- lation. Special thanks are extended to T.Yu. Snegireva and I.S. Batasheva for the clear illustrations. 1151_Frame_FM Page 10 Friday, August 2, 2002 1:29 PM