AFRICAN ELEPHANT & RHINO GROUP NEWSLETTER NUMBER 1 APRIL 1983 ARC INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION Animal Research and OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES Conservation Center SPECIES SURVIVAL COMMISSION PRODUCED WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF ARC, THE CONSERVATION DIVISION OF THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY) 1 Membership List Major Ian Grimwood P.O. Box 45079 NAIROBI CHAIRMAN Kenya Dr. David Western Dr. Anthony Hall-Martin Animal Research and Conservation Center Senior Research Officer P.O. Box 48177 Kruger National Park NAIROBI Private Bag X402 Kenya SKUKUZA 1350 MEMBERS South Africa (Regional Representative, Southern Africa) D.K. Andere KREMU Dr. A.K.K. Hillman P.O. Box 47146 P.O. Box 60642 NAIROBI NAIROBI Kenya Kenya Dr. E. Bekele Hanne Lindemann Wildlife Conservation Organisation Gronholtvej 35B Forestry & Wildlife Conservation Development Authority 3480 FREDENSBORG P.O. Box 386 Denmark ADDIS ABABA F.Lwezaula Ethiopia Director Dr. R.H.V. Bell Wildlife Division Senior Research Officer Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism Department of National Parks and Wildlife P.O. Box 1994 Kasungu National Park DAR—ES—SALAAM P.O. Box 43 Tanzania KASUNGU Dr. Robert Malpas Malawi WWF/I UCN (Vice Chairman) c/o AWF P.S.M. Berry P.O. Box 48177 Save The Rhino Trust NAIROBI, Kenya. P.O. Box 33 (Deputy Chairman) MFUWE Henry Minga Zambia Deputy Director for Administration Dr. Markus Borner Regional Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism Tanzania Wildlife Conservation Project P.O. Box 77 P.O. Box 154 JUBA MWANZA Sudan Tanzania Cynthia Moss Dr. Esmond Bradley Martin Animal Research and Conservation Center P.O. Box 15510 P.O. Box 48177 NAIROBI NAIROBI Kenya Kenya (Vice Chairman) Dr. J. Ngog-Nje Dr. P.M. Brooks Director Chief Research Officer Ecole pour Ia Formation des Specialistes de Ia Faune Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board Boite Postale 271 P.O. Box 662 GAROUA PIETERMARITZBURG 3200 Cameroun South Africa (Regional Representative, Central West Africa) J. Bushara Dr. Norman Owen-Smith Chief Game Warden Centre for Resource Ecology Game Department University of the Witwatersrand P.O. Box 4 JOHANNESBURG 2001 ENTEBB E South Africa Uganda Dr. Alan Rodgers Dr. D.H.M. Cumming Department of Zoology Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management Univeristy of Dar-es-Salaam P.O. Box 8365 P.O. Box 35064 HARARE DAR—ES—SALAAM Zimbabwe Tanzania (Regional Representative, South-Central Africa) Dr. C.A. Spinage Dr. lain Douglas-Hamilton Project UPV/78/006 P.O. Box 54667 c/o UNDP NAIROBI B.P. 575 Kenya OUAGADOU GOU Upper Volta 2 Chairman’s Report Elephants and rhinos share a great deal more in common for rhinos and certain elephant populations than it ever was, than their large size. Both occur widely throughout Africa from and the impetus established by the former elephant and rhino coastal flats to alpine meadows, and from parched deserts to groups, and by Wankie, has slipped considerably in the mean- wet equatorial forests. Both are hunted for trophies and their time. In an effort to streamline our activities and regain the products are traded throughout the world; both are threatened lost momentum we have reorganized AERSG. over much of their range by over-utilization and by agricul- The first meeting of the group was held in Nairobi between tural expansion. Both too are widely viewed as a monitor of 27th to 29th September, 1982 to decide how AERSG would how well our conservation efforts are succeeding — the logic function and what its priorities would be for the ensueing year. being that if we cannot save the biggest and most dramatic of I will briefly review the outcome of both topics. Africa’s animals, what hope is there for the rest? Whether this is a valid assumption or not is immaterial; indisputably the The newly constituted group has a Chairman who initiates fate of elephants and rhinos has helped alert our conservation and coordinates activities; a Deputy Chairman, Robert Malpas, consciousness and redouble our efforts to preserve natural ar- who coordinates all activities in our Nairobi Office; two Vice eas vast enough to contain them. Chairmen, Esmond Bradley Martin and Richard Bell, who pro- vide technical and scientific guidelines; and regional repre- The similarities between elephants and rhinos inevitably led sentatives, Anthony Hall-Martin (Southern Africa), J. Ngog- to parallel efforts to conserve them and to a considerable re- Nje (Central West Africa) and David Cumming (South Cen- dundancy of effort and competition for funds, with the more tral Africa), who coordinate localized activities and provide a beleagured rhino loosing out to the more glamorous elephant. regional perspective. Two other regional representatives will This at least seems to have been the thinking of IUCN’s Afri- be added shortly to cover West and Central Africa. AERSG can Elephant and Rhino Specialist Groups at a joint meeting also has more than 30 members and a number of other con- held in Wankie during 1981. The result of the week-long gath- sultants who contribute with information and to our decisions. ering was an impressive document spelling out the conserva- We have, initially at least, kept the membership deliberately tion priorities. By using a variety of biological, economic, and small. We will add new members as the pace quickens and our political criteria, the Wankie meeting established the areas and responsibilities widen. With its Chairmen and regional repre- populations which should be given most attention. In essence sentatives the group should be able to meet more regularly the outcome was a synthesis of the Pan African surveys con- than in the past and reassess the priorities more frequently. A ducted by the elephant and rhino specialist groups over the second meeting is already scheduled for 17th April in Harare, previous few years, and a formula for defining a continental Zimbabwe, with the intention of reviewing the trade in rhino conservation strategy. The results have since been published and elephant products prior to the CITES meeting in Botswana in an IUCN/WWF summary document, entitled “Elephants and immediately afterwards. Rhinos in Africa — a Time for Decision.’’ The detailed techni- cal proceedings have still not been published. New York Zoological Society is helping by supporting the The success at Wankie led IUCN to combine the elephant Chairman and Deputy Chairman, the salary of a full-time and rhino specialist groups. By August, 1982 I had been ap- researcher, secretarial and computer services and administra- pointed Chairman and in September the first meeting of the tive costs. Office space has been kindly provided in the Afri- African Elephant and Rhino Specialist Group (AERSG) was can Wildlife Foundation’s field headquarters in Nairobi. held in Nairobi. I will try to convey the gist of what has hap- The first task of AERSG was to review the conservation pri- pened since AERSG was formed, and what plans we have for orities established at Wankie and consider whether they were the next couple of years. still valid. The general consensus was that little had happened to Although there were many good reasons for combining the change the Wankie priorities, and that most of our efforts in the elephant and rhino specialist groups, it is worth considering first year should be devoted to implementing them. Although the rather daunting problems it created. Ordinarily IUCN’s most emphasis was placed on implementing conservation specialist groups are made up of individuals who volunteer programmes there was a clear recognition that we must also con- their time in order to assess the status of species, and to define tinually revise data on the status of species, and monitor the trade plans to conserve them. In the case of elephants and rhinos, in their products, if we are to understand more about how ecol- things were a little different. International concern over their ogy, politics and commerce will affect elephants and rhinos in imperilment added a sense or urgency that could not await the Africa in the coming years. Without such continuing reviews, sedate pace set by voluntary efforts. To speed the process NYZS conservation action will always lag behind the circumstances it and WWF provided funds for a secretariat for both the African is trying to anticipate and circumvent. In the same vein the meet- Elephant Specialist Group, headed by lain Douglas-Hamilton, ing also stressed the need to study the biology of species and and the African Rhino Specialist Group headed by Kes Hillman. subspecies, and to ensure that captive breeding programmes pro- Both Chairmen devoted their entire time, and that of a small vide a failsafe for biologically important races, such as the forest staff, to the task. Largely because of their efforts the Wankie elephant, and the northern white rhino. meeting was able to synthesize the results of their surveys and How have those initial discussions and intentions translated produce a conservation plan for Africa. into practical action? I can only briefly summarise what has However, the newly appointed group was faced with twice happened since our Nairobi meeting and how we intend to the work of either previous group, but without the benefit of a expand our efforts. The purpose of our Newsletter is to regu- full-time executive. Furthermore, the urgency is even greater larly circulate information about projects that are underway, 3 issues that must be addressed and improvements that can be unwilling to do so in practice unless the rancher is prepared to made in our abilities to conserve elephants and rhinos. Wehope accept certain responsibilities. The American Association for to produce the Newsletter twice a year. Zoological Parks and Aquaria is presently preparing certain In 1981 the Wankie meeting recognized that the northern guidelines that should, we consider, be the prerequisites of white rhino (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) presented the most breeding rhinos on private land in the U.S. urgent conservation challenge, yet, in spite of funds already Turning next to elephants, our first priority has been to help allocated by WWF, no action had been taken. The Nairobi direct conservation efforts to designated priority areas, such as meeting of AERSG set as its first priority the task of initiating Selous Game Reserve in southern Tanzania and Garamba Na- a conservation programme. Pat Rogers of UNDP Zaire had tional Park in Zaire. New studies are also underway to update already been in contact with IUCN over the plight of white information on the volume, source and destination of ivory com- rhinos in Garamba National Park, and Ian Hughes and Kes ing out of Africa. The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit in Cam- Hillman were sent on an emergency mission in November 1982 bridge together with Esmond Bradley Martin and Ian Parker are to report on what could be done. As a result of their visit, and presently analysing the trade statistics and will present their find- urgent pleas from the Zaire government, anti-poaching equip- ings in time for the Harare meeting where the information will ment is on its way to Garamba to help protect the rhino popu- be reviewed and decisions made on any conservation action lation, now reckoned to number in the low tens, down from thought necessary. Early indications are that extremely large con- over 400 in the early 1970s. Kes Hillman is also engaged on a signments have been leaving Sudan in the last two to three years much larger survey, recommended by AERSG, that will as- and that mean tusk weights have fallen substantially, signalling sess the status of northern white rhinos and recommend what an over-utilization of elephants. Informants in South Sudan re- action can be taken to conserve them in Zaire and Sudan, the port that large poaching gangs are decimating elephants and rhi- two countries where they still occur. Kes Hillman reports more nos in a manner reminiscent of Kenya in the mid-i 970s. Aerial about the project in this Newsletter. counts of Western Equatoria suggest that the elephant population An equally vital project is Esmond Bradley Martin’s recent has dropped by a half between 1976 and 1980. Since Sudan is a survey of the trade in rhino horn in the Far East. The results of member of CITES and actively seeking outside support for its his findings are summarized in his report and will form the conservation efforts, our next task is to consider what emergency basis of decisions made at the Harare meeting to close the re- measures can be used to curb illegal hunting. maining avenues of trade. There is good reason to think that As Ian Parker showed in his ivory report to the US Fish and concerted action now could soon eradicate most of the remain- Wildlife Service, we can glean a great deal about the status of ing trade. The African Wildlife Foundation recently spear- elephants in Africa by monitoring the trade in ivory. However, headed a publicity campaign that caused North Yemen to ban we still do not know what ivory parameters are most reliable, the import of rhino horns. If successful, the ban could lead to a or how sensitive they are to changes in elephant populations. significant improvement for the black rhino since over 40% of To explore the potential of trade statistics more thoroughly, all horns traded found their way into North Yemen during the Tom Pilgram of the University of California, Berkeley, has late 1970s. Bradley Martin advocates that similar diplomatic embarked on a statistical analysis of what a piece of ivory can and press campaigns could work in Far Eastern countries. tell us about the elephant from which it was extracted, and We have been actively concerned with other aspects of rhino thus what trade statistics ultimately tell us about the status of conservation, including rhinos on private ranches in Africa and the population from which a given consignment was drawn. the United States. In Kenya many of the remaining 1000 or so He elaborates upon this theme later in this Newsletter. We hope rhinos are found on private ranches where land owners protect eventually to formulate guidelines for how the ivory trade can them. Since it costs a rancher considerable money, it is not be better regulated in those countries which intend to manage unreasonable that he should expect support from public con- their herds on a sustainable basis. The meeting in Harare will servation bodies. However, there are many issues that concern address the topic in some detail. us about how this is done, and we have been helping to formu- We also hope to initiate a study of the forest elephant (Loxodonta late ideas for a policy that would enable Kenya to promote africana cyclotis), a sub-species of the African elephant which is rhino conservation on private lands, yet still guarantee that the still somewhat of an enigma. We do know from the substantial State, which legally owns all wildlife, could ultimately benefit volume of ivory assigned to cyclotis that it must be numerous. in the process and safeguard rhinos should a rancher no longer But how numerous and how widely it is distributed is uncertain. want to preserve them. Incentives for private conservation ef- We know even less about its basic biology, ecology and social forts must be recognized, but so too must the rights of conser- organization, yet it could play a key role in maintaining the patch- vation organizations who help with funds. No less than any work of equatorial forests and the high faunal diversity associ- government agency, conservation bodies are accountable for ated with it. It is exciting to think that such a large and important the projects they support. How this might be accomplished to animal is still virtually unknown biologically. the general satisfaction of ranchers, government, and conser- Finally, we are also in the process of launching a new Pan vation bodies, is now being discussed. African survey of elephants and rhinos, a process we hope to A similar situation applies in the United States where a num- complete later this year, and one that should enable us to re- ber of Texas ranchers are trying to obtain and breed black rhi- view the trends of the last three years and help us to define a nos from Africa. Under what conditions should private efforts new conservation strategy sometime in 1984. be encouraged? What responsibility does the rancher have to Future issues of the Newsletter will elaborate on the projects ensure that rhinos obtained under the guise of conservation are we have begun and offer a variety of news and viewpoints on appropriately managed? That is an issue we are much con- elephant and rhino conservation in Africa. cerned about. In principle we approve of the idea if it helps reduce the public burden of conserving species, but we are David Western 4 The Status of Northern White Rhinos Northern white rhinos (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) were discovered for the western world in 1900. At that time the only previously known white rhinos belonged to the southern race, (C.s.simum), south of the Zambezi, over 2500 kilometres away. These had been reduced to relict populations once said to num- ber 10 individuals. Now the situation is reversed. There are over 3000 southern white rhinos re-distributed throughout their former range and we are faced with a question for the northern whites: ‘Can we achieve a similar conservation success, or do we allow the whole sub-species to become extinct?’ At the start of this century, the northern white rhino prob- ably occurred west of the Nile from the north-western corner of Uganda and north-eastern corner of Zaire, north through Sudan to just above Shambe and west roughly between 5 and 9 to the present Central African Republic and southern edge of Tchad. Throughout this range it had a very patchy distribution, probably determined negatively by the presence of people and positively by the burned riverine grasslands associated with Figure 1. An informer shows Gabriel Gurguri, Senior Wildlife areas of savanna woodland and available water. Areas that were Officer in Shambe, a skull of a poached northern white rhino. given theoretical conservation status included: Ajai Sanctuary and the forest reserves of Mt. Kei and Otze in Uganda; Parc National de la Garamba in Zaire; Nimule and Southern Na- their conservation in the then relatively high density areas of tional Parks and Shambe and Numatina Game Reserves in Shambe Game Reserve in Sudan and Parc National de la Sudan; Reserve de Zemonga and Parc National de Goz Garamba in Zaire, Funds were not immediately available, how- Sassoulka in C.A.R. and Tchad. ever, and a new wave of poaching took hold of both countries The placid white rhino, grazing in open grasslands and bliss- around 1979/81 as the commercial value of the horn became fully unaware of what is happening downwind, is easy prey more widely realised and arms more easily available, Follow- for man. The conservation forces of these countries have often ing the re-affirmation of the northern white rhino as a high had inadequate resources to protect their vast areas and wars conservation priority at the Wankie meeting of the Rhino and have taken their toll. White rhinos are now extinct in seven, Elephant Groups and the A.E.R.S.G. meeting in Nairobi in probably eight of the above ‘sanctuaries’. Parc National de la September 1982, an ‘Emergency Mission’ went to Kinshasa Garamba has generally offered the best protection and in 1965 and Garamba in October/November 1982, consisting of Ian Sidney wrote that “. .the future of this Reserve is vital to the Hughes, Kes Hillman and Paul Dutton, as well as Pat Rogers survival of the northern race in the same way as the Umfolozi of FAO and Mankoto ma Mbaelele, Director Scientifique et Reserve in Natal is the last hope for the survival of the south- Technique of the Institut Zairois pour Ia Conservation de la ern race”. She was right. Nature (IZCN). We ascertained that rhinos still exist in Garamba, although in low numbers, and we proposed an ini- Garamba was well protected after its creation in 1938 and tial project for immediate aid for anti-poaching as well as long the reported 100 rhinos that existed then had increased to an term assistance. estimated 1000 to 3000 before Simba guerilla forces occupied the park in 1963. In 1972, Curry-Lindahl estimated that 900 to Starting in January this year, a more detailed survey is being 1000 had been killed during the disturbances. With regained carried out by Kes Hillman, in conjunction, for the aerial work control of the park, numbers increased again and 490 were in Garamba, with Markus Borner of Frankfurt Zoological So- estimated to be present by an FAO aerial survey in 1976. Around ciety (FZS) and with members of IZCN and the Wildlife Dept., 1978/81 another wave of poaching hit the park. Southern Sudan. Funding for the ground work is from World Wildlife Fund. The aerial work is carried out with the support The civil war in Sudan also eliminated many rhinos there. of FZS and the Global Ecological Monitoring System (GEMS) The famous rhinos of Nimule were wiped out and most of those of UNEP. near Juba and in Yei district and Numatina have been destroyed. In Uganda, all those in West Nile Province were killed during The overall objective is to find out how many of the north- Amin’s time and the subsequent liberation war and only the ern white rhinos are left and what can be done for their conser- odd one or two remain of those translocated to Murchison Falls vation. In Zaire this has involved carrying out aerial and ground National Park in the 1960s. In 1969/70 Corfield and Hamilton censuses and making detailed conservation recommendations. were unable to confirm the existence of white rhinos in east- In Sudan the priorities are to assess the situation in the areas ern C.A.R. though they have since been found in the west. most recently known to have had reasonable populations of They have almost certainly been lost from Tchad. white rhinos (Shambe Reserve and Southern National Park) and-to follow up leads on other possible populations. As a result of the 1979/80 survey of the status of rhinos in Africa, the northern white rhino was identified as the most en- The results so far are depressing for Sudan and dangerously dangered of the African rhinos and projects were developed for low but optimistic for Garamba. 5 Sudan needed in the south, but it will have minimal effect unless the central government takes action to stop the poaching and the Our information to date in Sudan is based on: export of ivory. a) Previous knowledge from ground and aerial surveys in the Shambe a) Most of the ground work in February was in the Shambe and Reserve and Southern National Park. Alliab Dinka areas, Rhino poaching only started in these regions b) Reports from government officials, hunters and local people. in the last 2 or 3 years, but in that time it has eliminated,most of the rhinos. c) Vehicle and foot surveys. In the Shambe area we worked with the Senior Wildlife Of- ficer, Gabriel Gurguri and his honey hunter ‘informers’. They We identified four areas worth investigating: had reported 24 rhino sightings in 4 locations since 1981. a) Shambe Game Reserve and adjacent areas. We covered six locations, concentrating on likely areas such b) Southern National Park between Sue and Ibba rivers. as the few water holes and the places where rhinos had been c) The proposed Lantoto National Park, adjacent to Parc National reported. Despite several promising leads, no fresh rhino spoor de la Garamba. was seen and it appears that most of the alleged sightings of rhino tracks were of doubtful validity. The most recent reported d) The area between Tonj and Meshra. sighting of live rhino was in July 1982. Most rhino poaching was from late 1979 to 1981, Our preliminary conclusions are Starting from the lowest priority: that: d) There have been no confirmed reports since 1976. An aerial re- 1. The Shambe region no longer contains enough northern white connaissance is considered necessary and may be carried out in rhinos to justify a major investment for their conservation but the April/May. limited help promised by IUCN/WWF is still badly needed and will be productive. c) The Lantoto area, south of the Yei-Maridi road was covered as part of the Garamba aerial census. It is an attractive, gently hilly 2. The proposed full Game Reserve area should be officially gazet- area with moderate to thick cover of broadleaved woodland, but ted as soon as possible with an initial compromise on limited graz- very limited availability of water. Almost no animals were seen, ing and watering rights in the south east, but total human exclu- apart from an occasional duiker or warthog. Its main value is as a sion in the north west. buffer zone to Garamba. It is questionable whether the Sudanese 3. The best hope for the area is for an agreement to be made be- authorities should invest a large part of their limited resources in tween the Ministry and a reputable safari company for the long- protecting the area but it is certainly worth improving its legal term tourist development and conservation of the Reserve. There conservation status. has been a preliminary acceptance of this idea and an initial meet- b) The situation in Southern National Park represents Southern ing has been held. Sudan’s biggest immediate conservation problem. Since the 1980 dry season, the Southern Region has been invaded annually by Zaire poachers from the north. Well-armed and mobile, with horses, came Is and pack donkeys, they have caused havoc for wildlife Garamba National Park (4900km2) in Zaire is now the best and people alike. They concentrate mainly on elephants but kill hope for conservation of the northern white rhinos in the wild. anything of value and have almost certainly eliminated the white Aerial and ground surveys were carried out there in March rhino in the west of the region. Each year the poachers have moved as follows: further south and east and this year are in greater force than be- fore. They have completely occupied Southern National Park and a) A 10% systematic aerial sample count was made over the whole in March there were estimated to be between 15 and 30 camps in park and surrounding game reserve and the proposed Lantoto the Park with 10 to 300 men in each. They are far better armed National Park, directly comparable with that carried out by the than the Southern Region Wildlife Department staff that are try- FAO team in 1976. ing to combat them and are equipped with new G3 automatic b) A 46% intensive aerial sample count was made over the southern weapons, radio communications and helicopter support. third (1609km2) of the park, during which only rhinos and el- It has not so far been possible to carry out a systematic count ephants were recorded, over this war zone, which in 1980 was estimated to hold 168 c) The park staff carried out their regular ground count, walking white rhinos, but an intensive count over the rhino area is transects spaced at 2km intervals over the southern third of the planned for May when rains have moved the poachers out. So park. far 220 tusks have been captured from poachers, but it is esti- mated by one source that 5,000 and by another source that d) Simultaneous high intensity ‘total’ counts were made by guards 30,000 elephants have been killed each year. Average tusk walking 500m spaced transects and by ourselves flying over an 84km2 rhino ‘concentration’ area. weight of elephants shot by one safari company fell from 49 lb to 36 lb from 1980/1 to 1981/2. The large elephants that were e) The total number of individually recognised animals was extrapo- easily found 4 or 5 years ago have long gone. Most of the lated. poached tusks weigh only a few pounds each. Six rhinos were seen within the aerial sample transects and This organised poaching has political and military links. another five individuals outside. The preliminary estimate from Unless stopped, there is no hope for Sudan’s northern white the 46% count was 15. From aerial and ground observations rhinos and very little hope for the wildlife as a whole. A well approximately 17 individuals can be accounted for. The re- organised, equipped and maintained anti-poaching effort is sults from the high intensity counts indicate that some rhinos 6 may have been missed from the air, but inconsistencies in the Strong possibilities exist for tourist development of the ground counts make it impossible to apply correction factors. Garamba, which has several unique features, in particular the Our estimate therefore from a critical examination of all re- only African elephant domestication project. Although there sults is that at least 15 to 20, possibly more, white rhinos still are only four surviving trained elephants, there are proposals exist in Garamba. They are confined to a fairly localised area. to catch and train more. The population is dangerously low but should be viable if a An excellent chance now exists to save the last most viable major input is made in Garamba and the northern whites al- northern white rhinos in the wild, while conserving and devel- ready in captivity are managed to improve breeding with po- oping a fabulous area. It must be seized. tential for genetic exchange. Garamba is a beautiful, produc- The results of the survey have emphasised how important it tive and well-watered area with large numbers of other animal is to develop the breeding and management of the northern species, particularly buffaloes and elephants (of which there white rhinos already in captivity. It was believed that there are estimated to be 5000 in 1600km2). Another major advan- were only fourteen in captivity but recent information indi- tage is the well established infrastructure which can be re-de- cates that there are more. The possibility of consolidating these veloped. animals into two groups is being considered and the Interna- The park staff lack equipment, funds, vehicles and supplies tional Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens and Ameri- but IZCN has already taken steps to concentrate on rhino pro- can Association of Zoo Parks and Aquariums have agreed to tection and research under Mankoto ma Oyisenzo and has in- oversee a programme. The largest group at present is the eight vited an expatriate researcher. Some of the equipment priori- in Czechoslovakia which are breeding, but slowly. Artificial ties identified during the November mission have already been insemination is being developed and it is possible that semen met. Other urgent requirements are needed immediately. A could be collected from immobilised wild rhinos in Garamba. larger project should be developed to ensure that the rhinos are An investment of money and effort is needed now for a co- protected and managed along with the whole ecosystem. ordinated programme of conservation in the wild and devel- Patrol bases are presently being established in the rhino area opment of captive breeding to ensure that northern white rhi- for intensive surveillance. Radio collaring is suggested as part of nos and their habitats continue to exist. the future programme of intensive protection and management. Kes Hillman Selous Aerial Survey 1981 On behalf of the Tanzanian Rhino and Elephant Task Force high 95% confidence limits on both counts (46% and 44% re- a census was carried out in the Selous Game Reserve in South- spectively) our ground counts showed clearly that aerial sur- ern Tanzania in 1981. About 35% of the 55,000 km2 Game veys have only limited value for counting rhinos. Using the Reserve was surveyed and the results were compared with a results of ground counts we worked out a rhino correction fac- survey that had been carried out by Douglas-Hamilton in 1976. tor of x 2.55 in the wet season for that specific area and veg- etation cover. We were unable to work out a correction factor The elephant numbers seem to have remained stable between for the dry season, due to different behaviour patterns of the 1976 and 1981. Numbers counted were 82 628 + 17% in 1976 rhinos, who concentrate in riverine forest and thickets during and 85 504 + 12% in 1981. As data could be compared only this season. for the wet season, when visibility is not optimal, the estimate is conservative. The actual number of elephants is probably According to professional hunters and Wildlife Division staff, nearer 100,000. rhino poaching is occuring occasionally but has not yet reached an alarming level. Elephant skeleton densities have increased by about 50% from 1976 to 1981 and the ratio of dead to live elephants has The 3,000 rhinos estimated make the Selous black rhino risen from 7.8% to 12.3%. This indicates a higher mortality population the largest in the world. rate in the elephant population. The distribution pattern of skel- Up to date the best protection for the wildlife in the Selous etons along access routes and close to settled areas indicates Reserve was the vastness and inaccessibility of the area. SHELL that the higher mortality in elephants is due to poaching. is at present building seismic roads into three quarters of the We can conclude that the elephant population of the Selous Selous Game Reserve, thus making it unfortunately also ac- remained at about the same level between 1976 and 1981, but cessible to illegal hunting. that poaching in the more accessible areas has markedly in- A number of recommendations were made to improve pro- creased. tection and management of the Selous. The AERSG is making Survey data seem to suggest that the total (corrected) num- a high level approach to SHELL, to assure their cooperation in ber of rhinos in the Selous has decreased from about 5,000 to minimizing the negative effects their present work has in the about 3,000 animals in the last five years. These figures must Selous Game Reserve. however be considered with reservations. Although there were Markus Borner 7 Musth discovered in the African Elephant A long-standing controversy in the field of elephant biology has recently been cleared up with the discovery that musth definitely occurs in the African elephant. The phenomenon of musth (which has been likened to rutting behaviour) in male Asian elephants is well-known both in the wild and in captiv- ity in Asia as well as in zoos and circuses around the world. A male in musth secretes from the temporal glands, has a con- tinual discharge of urine, becomes very aggressive, and in cap- tivity is very difficult to handle. These physical and behavioural characteristics are displayed periodically generally once or sometimes twice a year for each individual. When domestic male elephants come into musth they have to be chained up, taken off work and given reduced feed. Stories abound in the literature of musth males killing their mahouts or their keepers and trainers in zoos and circuses. Elephant observers including naturalists, hunters, biologists and game wardens, have speculated on the occurrence of musth in the African elephant, since in so many respects African and Asian elephants are similar, but they concluded that it did not occur. The main reason for this conclusion is the apparent dif- ference in activity of the temporal gland between the Asian and African elephant. In the Asian elephant, with rare excep- tions, only males in musth secrete from the temporal glands and this secretion is the prime indicator of musth. In the Afri- can elephant males, females, juveniles and even young calves secrete from the temporal glands frequently. Elephant observ- ers could find no relationship between the secretion and sexual or aggresive behaviour and so they concluded musth did not occur and furthermore, that the secretion in the African elephant was related to another, as yet unknown, function. Figure 2. Amboseli bull elephant We started our long-term study of the elephants of Amboseli tually we could recognise the subtle signals of musth at a dis- National Park in 1972, and continuous observations have been tance. For instance, as a precautionary measure we often smelled made on individually known males since September, 1972. The the air as we arrived at a large group. And we learned to recognise population presently consists of 620 animals of which approxi- the “musth walk”——a head high, chin in, ears tense strut—— mately 164 are adult males. visible at several hundred meters away. In our study of the bulls we were not looking for musth, nor Over the years we found that each bull has a particular few were we even trying to discover the function of the temporal months of the year during which he comes into musth. For ex- gland. However, as the long-term records began to accumulate ample, M126 has come into musth in June, July and August ev- we started to see some unusual phenomena among the bulls in ery year for seven years and M13 has been in musth in March, the older age classes (those over about 30 years). We first started April and May every year for six years. However, some males to notice some of these males with continuously dripping urine exhibit musth for only a day or two while others may remain in which was accompanied by a strong odour and a greenish musth for upwards of five months. The duration and timing of colouration to the end of the penis and part of the sheath. We musth periods is dependent on a complex interaction of environ- referred to this phenomenon as the “green penis syndrome” or mental and social factors such as rainfall, vegetation biomass, “GP”. In addition when the bull had the GP syndrome he had number of available females and male dominance status. swollen temporal glands and copious, thick secretion from the For more detailed information on musth in the African glands. This secretion appeared different in consistency from elephant see the following references: that of females, juveniles and younger males. We also noted that males with GP were not in their usual haunts, Poole, J.H. and Moss, C.J. 1981. Musth in the African elephant. the bull areas, but were in the company of females, busily mov- Nature, 292: 830—831. ing through the group testing each female in turn. We soon learned Poole, J.H. 1982. Musth and male—male competition in the to be wary of any bull with GP as these males were very aggres- African elephant, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge. sive, not only towards other males but towards observers as well. Later in our study we found that this aggressive behaviour was Joyce H. Poole due to very high counts of the male hormone, testosterone, Even- Cynthia J. Moss 8 Follow-up to stop trade in Rhino products in Asia From 1979 to 1981, Dr. Esmond Bradley Martin carried out in- traditional drugs, these now include explanations why rhino vestigative research on the international trade in rhinoceros horn is no longer being imported; and in Japan, the govern- products, under the sponsorship of WWF and IUCN. in the re- ment itself sent letters to pharmacists requesting that they pro- ports he submitted, he recommended that steps should be taken mote the use of substitutes for rhino horn, Such actions are to bring to a halt the international trade in rhino products and to commendable: they have helped to lower domestic demand decrease the demand by consumers for rhino horn, skin and and, possibly, they will also discourage illegal imports. Sec- hooves. He has recently returned from another trip to Asia, spon- ondly, saiga antelope horn is now much more widely used as a sored by WWF /I UCN, African Wildlife Foundation and African fever-reducing drug in Asia than it was, partly because of my Fund For Endangered Wildlife, for the purpose of implement- own efforts to persuade importers, doctors and pharmacists in ing measures to stop this trade, which still remains a threat to oriental medicine to use it instead of rhino horn; but, mainly, the survival of rhinos in the wild. because it is a very much cheaper drug and is acceptable as a substitute for rhino horn in traditional medicine. The retail price From October 1982 to February 1983, I visited ten Asian for a kilo of saiga horn in Singapore, for example, is around countries in order to discourage pharmaceutical wholesalers $230, while a kilo of rhino horn is $9,876 for African species from further dealings in rhino products, to explain to practitio- and $19,170 for Asian species. Thirdly, since Hong Kong is a ners of traditional Chinese medicine why they should no longer major entrepot for most traditional Chinese drugs, and can now prescribe rhino drugs, and to publicise in the mass media the only supply to other countries stocks of rhino horn imported plight of the rhino in Africa as well as in Asia, so that consum- before the 1979 legislation, pharmacists elsewhere in Asia are ers would be more willing to use substitutes. Also, I studied aware that it will become increasingly difficult to obtain via the present state of the international trade in rhino products to Hong Kong. Moreover, because the traders in Hong Kong do find out what additional efforts could be made to stop lt. not want to lose their rhino horn customers to foreign pharma- I discovered that despite a sharp decline in the amount of ceutical firms which will supply rhino horn, they are doing new rhino horn reaching the world market from 1980 to 1982, their utmost to sell other drugs as substitutes. Fourthly, the there has generally been only a small increase in its retail price sharp rise in the wholesale price of rhino horn which was $35 in most Asian countries. If the demand for rhino horn had con- a kilo in 1972, led to the appearance of fake rhino horn shav- tinued on the same scale as it was three years ago, there would ings and tips of water buffalo horn being marketed under the have been substantial price increases relative to its lesser avail- name of rhino. This has made customers suspicious; conse- ability. Because this is not the case, the encouraging conclu- quently, some would rather buy a packet of dried herbs or saiga sion can be drawn that there is a significant decrease in de- antelope horn when in doubt about the genuineness of the rhino mand among consumers in Asia for rhino horn. product they are offered. Specifically, the quantity of new horn reaching the world market has fallen from eight tonnes per year between 1972 and 1978 to less than four tonnes annually from 1979 to 1982. Since the number of rhinos in Africa was reduced by half dur- ing the 1970 decade, poachers have now found it more diffi- cult to locate rhinos; furthermore, some of the African coun- tries which had been among the main suppliers of rhino horn (Kenya, Zimbabwe and South Africa) have initiated tactics which in turn have greatly restricted the movement of rhino horn across their borders. Concerning the retail prices for rhino horn in Asia, on aver- age they have increased by only 20% since 1979, about 8.5% a year, roughly the same as inflation. As for rhino hide, a kilo in Hong Kong has gone down in retail price from $423 in 1979 to $376, and its decrease in price in Singapore is even more spectacular during this period: from $923 to $635. Wholesale, average costs of rhino horn have remained the same since 1979: $550 for African horn per kilo C.I.F. South-East Asia, and $9,000 per kilo for Asian horn. There are many reasons for the declining demand in rhino products today. First, and most importantly, Hong Kong and Japan have stopped importing them, in 1979 and 1980 respec- tively, and these two countries were the largest consumers of rhino horn for medicinal purposes. In Hong Kong, where phar- Figure 3. A typical Chinese Medical Hall in Penang, Malaysia. maceutical traders produce numerous books and brochures on 9 TABLE I AVERAGE RETAIL PRICE FOR RHINOCEROS HORN PER KILO IN LATE 1982/EARLY 1983 Place Origin of Horn Price per Kilo Hong Kong mostly African $ 15,700 Japan African 2,516 Osaka African 2,243 Kyoto African 1,934 South Korea Seoul African 1,797 Pusan African 1,930 Taegu African 1,475 Macao mostly African 7,797 Philippines (Manila) mostly African 10,706 Brunei (Bandar Seri Begawan) mostly African 6,895 Indonesia Medan, Sumatra Asian 2,847 Semarang, Java ? 11,679 Singapore mostly African 11,804 a) African 9,876 b) Asian 19,170 Malaysia Kuala Lampur Asian/African 17,280 a) African 9,876 b) Asian 24,256 Georgetown, Penang mostly Africa 14,582 a) African 5,415 b) Asian 27,557 Source: Survey taken by author. Fifthly, already worldwide publicity about the decline in rhi- is perhaps the biggest problem insofar as the trade in this prod- nos has reached the ears of city dwellers in Asia, through the uct for medicinal purposes is concerned. Moreover, during the mass media and even by word of mouth, with the result that past few years there has been a definite increase in the amount many would-be customers of rhino horn are no longer asking of rhino horn and skin coming into Singapore from Sumatra for it when they visit their traditional pharmacies. From inter- because the Singapore dealers generally offer higher prices, views I carried out, however, this is not usually because they and the horn can freely enter the country. There is not even a appreciate the need for conservation, but because they don’t duty levied on rhino products. The simplicity of getting rhino believe there are any more rhino horns available. horn on the market in Singapore is why Indian rhino horn is being smuggled out of Calcutta to this destination. Ominously, While the demand for rhino products in Asia may be begin- there has recently been an upsurge in poaching of Indian rhi- ning to wane, curtailment of the trade is still a long way off. nos in Assam. Efforts to cut it short arc hampered not only by those who flout laws prohibiting the movement of rhino horn across certain China is still exporting vast quantities of various manufac- international borders, but also by loopholes in legislation and tured tablets containing rhino horn. These are to be found in even the absence of restrictions in some countries. Without traditional medicine shops throughout Asia ——in Japan, South effective controls on this trade, rhino horn can continue to reach Korea, the Philippines as well as in Singapore, Hong Kong the main markets and if such supplies become substantial, the and Macao. In selling such manufactured medicines the tradi- demand could escalate once again. tional pharmacists continue to cater to the demand for rhino horn. Since the rhino horn is not readily identifiable in these There is also the major challenge of North Yemen. Its loca- drugs from China, they are technically allowed to be imported tion is close to African rhino sources, the demand for horn by countries which have ratified C.I.T.E.S. remains high there, and it is well known that even though the government made rhino horn an illegal import in late 1982, it Hong Kong traders are legally allowed to continue to export is still coming into the country. Smuggling is nothing new to their old stocks of rhino horn; and since 1976, when they had North Yemen: traders have managed to bring in and take out to obtain licences for rhino horn, 2,535 kilos have either been other illegal goods with impunity. Regarding rhino horn, trad- consumed domestically or exported. Additionally, there are ers are now arriving on scheduled airline flights to Sanaa with some stocks of rhino horn held in Hong Kong which have never rhino horn from the southern Sudan in their baggage. been registered, and some of them are now being smuggled The role of Singapore as a legitimate entrepot for rhino horn out, mainly to South Korea. 10