Khaled Salah Mohamed New Frontiers in Cryptography Quantum, Blockchain, Lightweight, Chaotic and DNA New Frontiers in Cryptography Khaled Salah Mohamed New Frontiers in Cryptography Quantum, Blockchain, Lightweight, Chaotic and DNA Khaled Salah Mohamed A Siemens Business Fremont, CA, USA ISBN 978-3-030-58995-0 ISBN 978-3-030-58996-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58996-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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Preface Today, cryptography plays a vital role in every electronic and communication sys- tem. Everyday, many users generate and interchange large amount of information in various fields through internet, telephone conversations and e-commerce trans- actions. In modern system-on-chips (SoCs), cryptography plays an integral role in protecting the confidentiality and integrity of information. This book provides comprehensive coverage of various cryptography topics, while highlighting the most recent trends such as quantum, blockchain, lightweight, chaotic and DNA cryptography. Moreover, this book covers cryptography primitives and their usage and applications and focuses on the fundamental principles of modern cryptogra- phy such as stream ciphers, block ciphers, public key algorithms and digital sig- natures. The readers will build a solid foundation in cryptography and security. This book presents the fundamental mathematical concepts of cryptography. Moreover, this book presents hiding data techniques such as steganography and watermarking. Besides, it provides a comparative study of the different crypto- graphic methods that can be used efficiently to solve security problems. This book discusses modern cryptography and data hiding techniques. This includes: • Stream ciphers, block ciphers, public key algorithms and digital signatures. • Quantum cryptography: Quantum cryptography uses physics to develop a cryp- tosystem completely secure against being compromised without the knowledge of the sender or the receiver of the messages. • Blockchain cryptography: Blockchain is a distributed database that allows direct transactions between two parties without the need for an authoritative mediator. Blockchain cryptography is a way to encapsulate transactions in the form of blocks where blocks are linked through the cryptographic hash, hence forming a chain of secured blocks. • Lightweight cryptography: Lightweight cryptography works between the trade- offs of security, cost, and performance and is focused at devices and systems on edge. • Chaotic cryptography: Many strong ciphers have been applied widely, such as DES, AES and RSA. But most of them cannot be directly used to encrypt vii viii Preface real- time embedded systems because their encryption speed is not fast enough and they are computationally intensive. So, chaotic cryptography is suitable for real- time embedded systems in terms of performance, area and power efficiency. • DNA cryptography: DNA cryptography is a promising and rapid emerging field in data security. DNA cryptography may bring forward a new hope for unbreak- able algorithms. DNA cryptology combines cryptology and modern biotechnology. • Steganography: Steganography is the art of hiding the existence of a message between sender and intended recipient. It hides secret messages in various types of files such as text, images, audio and video. • Watermarking: Watermarking is embedding some information within a digital media so that the digital media looks unchanged. This is useful for copy protection. Fremont, CA, USA Khaled Salah Mohamed Contents 1 Introduction to Cyber Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Security Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Security Threats/Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Security Requirements/Services/Objectives/Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3.1 Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3.2 Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3.3 Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.4 Access Control/Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.5 Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.6 Non-repudiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4 Security Mechanisms/Tools/Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.5 Security Hierarchy/Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.6 Mathematical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6.1 Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6.2 Greatest Common Divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.7 Security Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.7.1 SSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.7.2 IPSec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2 Cryptography Concepts: Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1 Cryptography History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.2 Symmetric Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2.1 Historical Algorithms: Letter-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2.2 Modern Algorithms: Bits-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3 Asymmetric Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.3.1 RSA: Factorization Computational Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.3.2 ECC: Discrete Logarithm Problem (DLP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.3.3 ElGamal Cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.3.4 Diffie–Hellman Algorithm: Key Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ix x Contents 2.3.5 EGC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.4 Hybrid Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.5 Crypto-Analysis/Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.5.1 Exhaustive/Brute Force Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.5.2 Statistical/Histogram Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.5.3 Differential Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.5.4 Known/Chosen Plaintext/Ciphertext Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.6 Comparison Between Different Encryption Algorithms . . . . . . . . . 33 2.7 Cryptography Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.7.1 Secured Email . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.7.2 Secured Chat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.7.3 Secured Wireless Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.7.4 Secured Mobile/Smartphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3 Cryptography Concepts: Integrity, Authentication, Availability, Access Control, and Non-repudiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.1 Integrity: Hashing Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.1.1 SHA-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.1.2 HMAC-SHA256 (Hashed Message Authentication Code, Secure Hash Algorithm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.1.3 MD5 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.1.4 Blake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.2 Integrity: Digital Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3 Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3.1 HDCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.3.2 CAPTCHA Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.4 Availability: Intrusion Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.4.1 Artificial Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.5 Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.6 Non-repudiation: Trusted Third Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4 New Trends in Cryptography: Quantum, Blockchain, Lightweight, Chaotic, and DNA Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.1 DNA Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.1.1 Fundamentals of DNA Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.1.2 DNA Cryptography Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.2 Quantum Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.2.1 Properties of Quantum Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.2.2 Quantum Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.2.3 Quantum Cryptography Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.3 Chaotic Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.3.1 Chaotic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Contents xi 4.3.2 Chaotic Encryption System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.3.3 Hardware Implementation of Chaotic Algorithm . . . . . . . . 74 4.3.4 Evaluation of the Proposed Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.4 Lightweight Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.4.1 PRESENT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.4.2 SIT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.4.3 HIGHT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4.4 KHUDRA Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4.5 CAMELLIA Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4.6 Attribute-Based Encryption (ABE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.5 Blockchain Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.5.1 Limitations of Blockchain Technology Can Be Summarized as Follows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.5.2 Prime Number Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.5.3 Applications of Blockchain Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5 Data Hiding: Steganography and Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 5.2 Steganography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 5.2.1 Steganography in Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 5.2.2 Steganography Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 5.2.3 Steganography Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 5.3 Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 5.3.1 Watermarking Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5.3.2 Watermarking Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 5.4 Visual Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 5.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101