NASA/SP–2013-216025 NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 1971–1995: An Operations Retrospective With a View to SOFIA Edwin F. Erickson and Allan W. Meyer NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000 Cover: The Gerard P. Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO). NASA/SP–2013-216025 NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 1971–1995: An Operations Retrospective With a View to SOFIA Edwin F. Erickson Research Scientist (retired), Astrophysics Branch, MS 245-6 NASA Ames Research Center and Orbital Sciences Corporation Allan W. Meyer Associate Scientist, SOFIA Project, MS 211-3 Universities Space Research Association NASA Ames Research Center National Aeronautics and Space Administration Ames Research Center Moffett Field, California 94035-1000 December 2013 Available from: NASA Center for AeroSpace Information 7115 Standard Drive Hanover, MD 21076-1320 (301) 621-0390 National Technical Information Service 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, VA 22161 (703) 487-4650 DEDICATION This document is a tribute to the many people whose efforts produced the resounding success of NASA’s airborne astronomy program—and in particular, that of the Kuiper Airborne Observatory—at Ames Research Center. In addition, we salute their family members, and our own, whose support and sacrifices were major contributions to this remarkable activity. Lastly, we recognize in particular our deceased colleagues, whose dedication to the program deserves special regard: Robert M. Cameron, Carlton M. Gillespie Jr., and James O. McClenahan. iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................... ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. xi ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................... xiii 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................1 2. FORERUNNERS OF THE KAO ................................................................................................3 2.1 The Convair 990 ...............................................................................................................3 2.2 The Learjet Observatory ...................................................................................................3 2.3 The U-2 Aircraft ...............................................................................................................5 3. THE ENABLING ATMOSPHERE ............................................................................................7 4. THE KUIPER AIRBORNE OBSERVATORY ..........................................................................9 4.1 Development ....................................................................................................................9 4.2 Astronomy Program Synopsis ........................................................................................10 4.3 Science Highlights ..........................................................................................................10 4.4 Operations .......................................................................................................................11 4.4.1 Flight Program ....................................................................................................11 4.4.2 Flight-Efficiency/Reliability Statistics................................................................12 4.4.3 Astronomy Missions ...........................................................................................14 4.4.4 Deployments .......................................................................................................15 4.5 Efficiency-Enhancing Features .......................................................................................16 4.5.1 Flight Planning ....................................................................................................16 4.5.2 Preparations for Flight ........................................................................................19 4.5.3 Communication, Teamwork, Co-location...........................................................20 4.5.4 In-Flight Personnel and Accommodations..........................................................21 4.5.5 In-Flight Flexibility .............................................................................................24 4.5.6 Make-Up Flights .................................................................................................27 4.5.7 Investigator Facilities ..........................................................................................28 4.5.8 Science-Instrument Airworthiness Approval ......................................................28 4.5.9 Computers and Software .....................................................................................29 4.5.10 Continuous Improvement: Hardware, Software, Procedures .............................31 4.5.11 Local Infrastructure .............................................................................................32 4.6 Education and Public Outreach (E&PO) ........................................................................32 4.7 Organization / Staffing ....................................................................................................34 4.7.1 General ................................................................................................................34 4.7.2 Responsibilities ...................................................................................................36 4.7.2.1 Aircraft ...................................................................................................36 4.7.2.2 Mission Systems .....................................................................................37 4.7.2.3 Science Support ......................................................................................37 v TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) 4.8 Science Program .............................................................................................................39 4.8.1 Science Instruments ..............................................................................................39 4.8.2 Investigators, Observing Allocations ...................................................................41 4.8.3 Data Availability ..................................................................................................43 4.8.4 Science Involvement at NASA Ames ..................................................................44 4.9 Annual Operating Costs and Productivity Metrics .........................................................45 4.10 KAO Lifetime Record, Costs, and Science Metrics .......................................................46 4.11 The Value of Airborne Astronomy to the Astronomical Community ............................48 4.12 Factors For Success—Why It Worked So Well .............................................................49 5. SOFIA .......................................................................................................................................53 5.1 Justification .....................................................................................................................53 5.2 History.............................................................................................................................54 5.2.1 1970–1979 ............................................................................................................54 5.2.2 1980–1984 ............................................................................................................55 5.2.3 1985–1989 ............................................................................................................55 5.2.4 1990–1995 ............................................................................................................58 5.3 The Facility .....................................................................................................................61 5.4 Vision for SOFIA ............................................................................................................62 5.4.1 Founders’ Recommendations for Operations .......................................................62 5.4.2 Implementation of SOFIA Operations .................................................................64 6. THE LONELY DARK NIGHT SKY .......................................................................................65 7. SUMMARY ..............................................................................................................................71 APPENDIX A. KAO Flight Statistics 1972–1995 .......................................................................73 APPENDIX B. KAO Scientists ....................................................................................................75 APPENDIX C. An Image History of the KAO ............................................................................79 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................187 CITED PARTICIPANTS .............................................................................................................191 ABOUT THE AUTHORS ..........................................................................................................197 POSTSCRIPT .............................................................................................................................199 vi LIST OF FIGURES 1. The Convair 990 “Galileo” circa 1967 .....................................................................................3 2. The Learjet Observatory ...........................................................................................................4 3. The U-2 aircraft ........................................................................................................................5 4. Temperature and overhead moisture versus altitude ................................................................7 5. Wavelength dependence of representative atmospheric transmissions at two altitudes ..........7 6. The KAO telescope during initial assembly and testing at NASA Ames ................................9 7. Development timeline of the Kuiper Airborne Observatory ....................................................9 8. The KAO poised for an observing mission in front of main hangar N-211 at Ames ............10 9. KAO astronomy flight summary, FY1974–FY1995 ..............................................................12 10. Western U.S. Special Use Airspace (SUA) areas ..................................................................16 11. A KAO flight plan ..................................................................................................................17 12. Superposition of 48 KAO astronomy flight plans for missions originating at NASA Ames during 1993–1995 ............................................................................................18 13. The KAO telescope installed in the C-141 (1990) .................................................................20 14. Configuration of research aircraft hangars at NASA Ames ...................................................21 15. Piloting the KAO ....................................................................................................................21 16. Layout of mission personnel accommodations on the KAO ..................................................22 17. The main (telescope) console (1995) .....................................................................................23 18. Operation of the telescope in flight ........................................................................................24 19. The tracking system ................................................................................................................25 20. Updating telescope pointing ...................................................................................................26 21. In-flight science-instrument adjustment .................................................................................27 22. KAO data and control system architecture .............................................................................30 23. E&PO in action on the KAO ..................................................................................................33 24. Organization of KAO operations at NASA Ames .................................................................35 25. C-141 engine replacement ......................................................................................................36 26. Science-instrument support ....................................................................................................38 27. Installing a science instrument ...............................................................................................40 28. Data acquisition in flight ........................................................................................................42 29. Distribution of astronomy flights awarded to Principal Investigators ...................................42 30. After a flight series .................................................................................................................43 31. A NASA Ames instrument team ............................................................................................44 32. Comparison of KAO and SOFIA beams (λ / D) on Saturn ....................................................53 33. 1986 artist’s concept of early SOFIA design .........................................................................56 34. Ames SOFIA Study Office team in 1990 ...............................................................................59 35. 1994 Airborne Astronomy Symposium announcement letterhead ........................................59 36. SOFIA model in the Ames 14-foot wind tunnel (1997) .........................................................60 37. SOFIA on a test flight in 2007 near Waco, Texas, where the aircraft was modified .............61 38. Optics in the SOFIA telescope ...............................................................................................62 39. First door-open test flight of SOFIA, 18 December 2009 ......................................................62 40. SOFIA “line op” 2009 ............................................................................................................64 41. The KAO farewell and decommissioning ceremony 29 September 1995 .............................70 Appendix C contains 106 images depicting the KAO history and participants. vii LIST OF TABLES 1. KAO Flight Operations, FY1974–FY1995...........................................................................11 2. Typical Efficiencies for KAO Observations .........................................................................13 3. Causes of Research Flight Interruption, 1981–1995.............................................................13 4. KAO Astronomy Year-by-Year Flight Summary.................................................................14 5. Some Technical Improvements to the KAO During Its Lifetime .........................................31 6. KAO Operations Staff (FTE) at Ames ..................................................................................34 7. Key KAO Project Staff Positions .........................................................................................37 8. KAO Focal Plane Instruments Existing in 1995 ...................................................................41 9. Current Epoch (2013) Annual KAO Operating Costs / Productivity ...................................46 10. KAO Lifetime Science Program Summary ..........................................................................46 11. KAO Lifetime Costs in 2013 Dollars ...................................................................................47 12. Some Science Mission Metrics for the KAO (2013 $) .........................................................47 13. Some Awards Received by Astronomers With Airborne Experience ..................................49 14a. Airborne Astronomy Factors for Success: Science, Operations, and Upgrades ...................50 14b. Airborne Astronomy Factors for Success: Facilities ............................................................51 A1. Kuiper Airborne Observatory, Flight Operations Summary FY1972–FY1995 ...................73 B1. KAO Principal Investigators and Awarded Flights, FY1974–FY1995 ................................76 B2. Some Participants in Airborne Instrument Developments and Some Subsequent Contributions .....................................................................................................77 viii