Metaphorical and literal readings of aphorisms in the Book of Proverbs James Alfred Loader Institut für Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft und Biblische Archäologie University of Vienna Professor Extraordinarius, UNISA Abstract Starting with a recently proposed thesis that the key to recognizing the coherence of Proverbs’ discourse of wealth and poverty should be seen in an appreciation of the text’s figurative interpretive possibilities, it is here argued that criticism of an “overly literal” interpretation of the Book of Proverbs is not well served by an “overly figurative” reading. A detailed analysis of the book’s proemium is offered to substantiate the argument that even as hermeneutical key to the anthology as a whole, it does not warrant a tendency to the figurative reading of aphorisms. It is further contended by means of illustrations from aphorisms within the poems and independent sayings that difficulties arise when such a reading is attempted on any appreciable scale. As a corollary, illustrations of the many instances where literal readings are necessary, so that such an overriding hermeneutical perspective cannot be convincing. Interpreting a metaphor is one thing, reading metaphorically is another, notably a creative act independent of whether its “correctness” can be demonstrated by arguments from the redactional frame or the possible relationship of the collected aphorisms to folk sayings. 1. INTRODUCTION In a recent monograph published in the prestigious Biblical Interpretation Series, the Chicago professor of Hebrew Bible, Timothy Sandoval, proposes a bold thesis on the basis of an investigation of what he calls “the discourse of wealth and poverty in the Book of Proverbs”. Focusing on “metaphor” and “discourse” and to a great degree depending on Paul Ricoeur, he argues that the book’s discourse on wealth and poverty is “more coherent than is usually thought and plays an integral role in the book’s construction of a moral vision for its reader or hearer.” HTS 62(4) 2006 1177 Metaphorical and literal readings of aphorisms in the Book of Proverbs This is extremely interesting, since it prompts several further questions: • whether the perceived coherence, being part of the whole book’s strategy in constructing a unitary moral vision, can also be observed within other “discourses” found in the book or in its presentation of other topics, such as trustworthiness, industriousness, the royal court and so on; • whether these “discourses” are coherent among and in themselves; • whether the roles played by such different aspects contribute by virtue of their unity to the moral vision; • if so, what is special about the discourse of wealth and poverty, and if not, is a general coherence of argumentative material not to be expected in a book of which it can be claimed that it has one “moral vision”? For the moment I shall not pursue these questions in any depth, since they provide a backdrop to what specifically interests me for the purposes of this paper, notably another idea exploited by Sandoval for the development of his argument. He continues in the review of his procedure:1 The key to recognising the coherence of Proverbs’ discourse of wealth and poverty is an appreciation of the text’s figurative interpretive possibilities. The Book’s prologue, which articulates the primary virtues and goals of Proverbs, itself invites the wise and discerning reader at the outset of the instruction to consider the book’s tropes and figures. With various individual meshalim, other internal cues, such as the difficulties or absurdities posed by a literal interpretation, likewise point to the text’s figurative qualities. The survey is consistently developed in the book and the importance of the prologue as hermeneutical “cue” is not co-incidentally stressed. In a detailed discussion of Proverbs 1:2-7 Sandoval (2006:45-57) develops the idea that the “tropes and figures” of verse 6 are intended to suggest that readers should be sensitised to find “figurative” meanings all over the book. If this is true, it would have to hold good for the Book of Proverbs as such and not only for the discourse of wealth and poverty. I do not dispute the idea that the prologue provides a hermeneutical indication of how the book as a redactional composition is to be read. But 1 Sandoval (2006:205). 1178 HTS 62(4) 2006 J A Loader using this insight for all practical purposes as an argument to slant the reader towards a “figurative” reading of the book, or at least a “more figurative” reading than would otherwise have been the case, in my opinion grossly over- estimates its possibilities. I shall therefore offer an alternative interpretation of the “hermeneutical cue” and then proceed to offer some illustrations of difficulties I perceive when trying to read “overly figuratively” as an alternative to what Sandoval calls “overly literalistic” readings. As a corollary, I shall then come to some illustrations of many instances where literal readings are not only possible, but also necessary. Together, these considerations will show that such an overriding “metaphorical” or “symbolical” hermeneutical perspective cannot be regarded as convincing. 2. EVIDENCE FROM THE TEXTUAL MATERIAL I begin with the connected text of the prologue and then turn to a selection of aphorisms to substantiate my argument. 2.1 Proverbs 1:1-72 1 The proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel. 2 For getting to know wisdom and discipline, for understanding the words of insight, 3 for gaining instruction in wise conduct, righteousness, justice and honesty, 4 for giving the simple shrewdness, knowledge and circumspection to the young. 5 A wise man should listen to expand learning and a discerning man to acquire skills, 6 in order to explain a proverb and a figure, the words of the wise and their riddles. 7 The fear of Yahweh is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction. First comes the title (v 1) and an expansion, qualifying the title itself and therefore specifying the contents of the book in the manner of what we would call a subtitle (vv 2-4), then a summarising injunction (vv 5-6), and finally the motto of the book (v 7). 2 For the translation and structural sketch, cf Loader (2004:418-20); because of the pivotal importance of the proemium for the thesis that the reading of the anthology should be slanted towards the symbolic, figurative or metaphorical reading of aphorisms, I now offer a somewhat fuller account of the content. HTS 62(4) 2006 1179 Metaphorical and literal readings of aphorisms in the Book of Proverbs Although the various parts of the introduction show signs of not having originated at the same time, they have been edited together into one passage prefacing the whole of the Book of Proverbs as we have it in its present Hebrew form. The first passage of the Book of Proverbs illustrates the oft overlooked interface between the synchronic analysis of a composite text and its diachronic aspects as well as the significance of this for its meaning. It can be read in several ways. • First, the series of infinitives in vv 2-4 and 6 can be taken as directly dependent on the heading in v 1: “The Proverbs of Solomon, son of David, king of Israel, to learn wisdom and instruction” et cetera (structure: vv 1-6 + 7). • Second, it is more probable that the infinitives of vv 2-4 depend on the heading and that of v 6 on the injunction(s) in v 5 (structure: vv 1+2-4; 5-6; 7). This is substantiated by the fact that the sequence of infinitives is interrupted by either one or two injunctions in v 5,3 as well as the fact that the infinitive !ybhl in v 6 is more naturally taken as dependent on this injunction / these injunctions, rather than on the verbless superscription in v 1: The expansion of learning and the acquisition of skills (v 5) are intended to clarify the difficult sayings of the wise (v 6) – which typifies the book as literature for teachers. • In the third place it is entirely possible that vv 5-6 are a redactional addition, which seems to be suggested by the fact that the series of infinitives and nouns in vv 2-4 concern general sapiential ideas, whereas v 6 refers to four quite specific wisdom genres. This is a diachronic argument involving the meaning of words and rendering the same structure as the one just described (vv 1+2-4; 5-6; 7). In any event vv 2-4 focus on the trainees and what they need, while vv 5-6 focus on the trainers and how they can provide in the needs of the young. • Fourth, it remains thinkable, if improbable, that v 5 was added later as a parenthetical addition, so that the series of infinitives may have originally continued in v 6 (structure: vv 1+2-4.6; 7). In this case !ybhl would have the same meaning as in v 2 (“understand” instead of “explain”). The repeated use of l with the infinitive construct (augmented by l with a noun in v 4b) has a marked alliterative effect, rendered all the more effective by the assonance of t[;d;l' (v 2), txq; l; ' (v 3) and to a lesser extent by ttel', also 3 Either: “A wise man should listen to expand learning and a discerning man to acquire skills” (one injunction) or: “A wise man should listen to expand learning and a discerning man should acquire skills” (two injunctions). 1180 HTS 62(4) 2006 J A Loader involving five dental sounds. Within vv 2-6 there is a little inclusio in that the last hemistich of v 2 and the first hemistich of v 6 begin with !ybhl. 1 The nature of what is to follow in the book is identified by describing the contents as “Solomon’s Proverbs”. This king was regarded by tradition as the wisest of sages (1 Kg 4:29-31 = Heb 5:9-11) and the author of many adages (1 Kg 4:32-33 = Heb 5:12-13). Although the editor could therefore not have excluded the possibility that King Solomon actually did compose proverbs in the tenth century BCE, he could not have intended his caption to be taken literally, that is, in the sense that Solomon was the author of all the proverbs in the book. 2 The important word for our purposes is !yb, which occurs in verses 2 and 6 and is of crucial importance for the question facing us. In the Hiphil, this verb means “to understand” as it does in the Qal. Because of the close synonymous parallelism to t[d; l; ' “get to know”, the other possibility, “to explain” (cf below on v 6), is excluded in v 2. The verb has a decided intellectual component, although it does not only refer to the mere awareness of facts, but includes discernment and reason. It often occurs, as here, in association with [dy and ~kx, even in non-sapiential literature (Ringgren 1973:623) and can mean “observe” (e g Pr 7:7), “pay attention” (e g Pr 14:8, 15) and “gain insight” (e g Pr 20:24). The semantic aspects involved in these uses of the word are closely related and the differences in nuance are often a matter of focus. Thus, to achieve understanding includes attentive observation, which is clearly intended here, since l with the infinitive is a final construction indicating purpose: this book is for learning. The object follows: hn"ybi yrem.ai: “Words of understanding”, hn"ybi is a derivative of !yb and is used in a construction akin to, but not identical with, a figura etymologica (since it is not the direct object of the cognate verb but itself imbedded in a genitive construction). We here have a qualitative genitive: understanding qualifies the words. This may be interpreted in two ways, either as words that lead to understanding or as words that spring from understanding. Both apply in the present context, for the wise impart insight and the pupils acquire it. These “words” may be taken generally to include all the words of the wise, including the spoken ones, but in the context of the preface to a book they refer primarily to the written words that follow. For the pairing of hn"ybi with hm'k.x', cf Pr 4:1, 5, 7; 7:4; 8:14; 9:6, 10; 16:16; 23:23; 30:2). Wisdom and understanding are conveyed by words in the first place. In this way the primary purpose of the book (v 2a) is elucidated: given acceptance of authority, the skills of life HTS 62(4) 2006 1181 Metaphorical and literal readings of aphorisms in the Book of Proverbs are acquired by paying attention to words of understanding, so that the same insight may be attained as that from which the words of the teachers spring. This throws into relief the discipline spoken of in the first hemistich: Whoever wishes to benefit, must pay attention, since the method for acquiring wisdom consists of heeding the insightful words of the wise, including those written in the present book. 3 The contents of the wisdom to be so acquired are unfolded by further technical terms. lKef.h;, “wise conduct”. The combination lKef.h; rs;Wm is a genitivus explicationis of the type indicating purpose: the training in question is specified by the wise conduct expected to result from it. qd,c,, righteousness is the general term for that which is in accordance with the normative order of society and the world.4 This may be a term designating “purely moral qualities”, but that is no reason to regard them as “different in kind from all the other abstract qualities listed in these verses” (Whybray 1994:32). On the contrary, neither sapiential injunctions nor adages can achieve the prospects introduced here without a normative basis. The practical turn of sapiential literature does not at all imply a lack of moral perspective. This is amply illustrated by the fact that the immediately following words often occur in the Book of Proverbs. jP'vm,i justice is the realisation of what is right in actual social and juridical practice. In addition to our verse, it often occurs in the book, both in the poems of chapters 1-9 (cf Pr 2:8, 9; 8:20) and in the adages of chapters 10-29 (cf Pr 12:5; 13:23; 16:8, 10, 11; 17:23; 19:28; 21:3, 7, 15; 28:5; 29:26). ~yrIv'yme, a far less common word, is a generic term to denote what is generally right (rXy) and includes straightforwardness, rectitude and honesty. Its generality may be imitated by the translation “uprightness”. It also occurs in Pr 2:9 (also in combination with righteousness and justice), in 8:6 and 23:16 (both times in this general sense), and in 23:31 (but here as part of an adverbial construction). This is, then, what life-skill entails. Wisdom, as the practising of justice in society, is an undertaking of straightforward honesty in accordance with the 4 According to A Ho (1991), a work devoted to “Sedeq and Sedaqah in the Hebrew Bible,” the former is a general term including righteousness and justice, whereas the latter is an ethical “state of being,” which stands the usual distinction between the two on its head. 1182 HTS 62(4) 2006 J A Loader prevailing normative order. Whose order this is, who stands behind its norms, will presently become clear (v 7). 4 Next, the recipients of the sapiential enterprise are mentioned. Certain qualities are “given” (ttle ') to them, which not only means that they are the beneficiaries of the training, but also implies a source that imparts the sapiential qualities to the receivers. This may be read in two ways: both the people who teach and the book itself may be taken as the source. In the present context the latter would be the most natural. This book is for imparting sapiential qualities. Even so, however, the association of discipline and training with the enterprise (rswm occurs in both preceding verses) points to the presupposition that the Book of Proverbs is to be used by teachers for the conveying of the qualities and qualifications in question. This suggests that, by the time of the final redaction of the book – when the title and preamble (vv 1- 7) were put in their present position – there could have been people who needed a book like this for the instruction of the youth. The primary readership of the book is, accordingly, not seen as the young trainees themselves, but the educators (see below on v 5). Quite apart from the question of how formal or institutional the undertaking was, it may be said that the book is a collection of materials for use in teaching. ~yIat'p.: These are the simple in the sense of inexperienced and naive. They are susceptible to outside influences and therefore to the salutary effects of sapiential teaching, but also to negative influences and may therefore be associated with fools (cf vv 22, 32; Pr 8:5). hm'r>[': The shrewdness spoken of here has no negative overtones. In Proverbs both the noun (cf 8:5,12) and the adjective (cf 12:16, 23; 13:16; 14:8; 22:3; 27:12) refer to the property of good judgement that enables one to make sharp decisions, that is, cleverness or astuteness as a feature of intelligence lacking in the foolish. t[;D;, “knowledge”, has a predominant cognitive component in that knowledge can be acquired by taking note of what one experiences (e g Pr 5:6; 23:35), but also by intentional effort (e g Qoh 2:21). However, it entails more than theoretical comprehension and can also denote intimate familiarity with a person (Gn 29:5; Jr 31:345) or acquaintance with an object and therefore the ability to care for it (Pr 12:10; 27:23). This makes it the most comprehensive term for knowledge, which can be used as a synonym for hmkx (cf Pr 1:7; 5 Perhaps a personified use of hmkx can also be seen in Qoh 7:12: “The advantage of knowing Wisdom is: she gives life to her husband.” HTS 62(4) 2006 1183 Metaphorical and literal readings of aphorisms in the Book of Proverbs 9:10; Qoh 1:16, 17; 2:26; 9:10), whereas, when used as a verb, it can have hmkx as its object (as in v 2 above). hM'zIm.: “circumspection” is the careful discretion with which premeditated decisions are made (Pr 2:11; 3:21; 5:2; 8:12). Its semantic range is very similar to that of hm'r>[' and includes the possibility of the negative use of this faculty (e g Pr 12:2; 14:17; 24:8). Neither term presupposes a moral quality, but both are among the intellectual powers considered to be “inherently conducive to morality” (Fox 2000:61) and are therefore not so neutral as Fox suggests when used as here. r[;n:: The primary recipient of wisdom instruction is the young Israelite boy. He is constantly referred to as r[n; : and addressed as ynBI ., “my son” (cf Pr 1:8, 10, 15; 2:1; 3:1, 11; 13:22; 15:11; 17:6 etc). The new beginning with the introduction of a jussive (v 5) and its expansion with another final infinitive construction (v 6) mark the next unit in the preface. 5 Not only the young may benefit from the contents of the book, but also the established sage (~k'x') who already has understanding (!Abn). This verse is often regarded as a later addition, breaking as it does the series of infinitives starting at v 2. But whether this is so or not, it makes perfect sense in its present position and form. The jussive [m;v.yI is not the indication of a clumsy interpolation, but necessary to indicate a new beginning. Now the readers are directly addressed. This is no longer the subtitle of the book, but a miniature foreword in which the first-tear users of the book are addressed: the wise who already have understanding. Of course the wise have learning and skills already, but if they take note of the contents of this book, they will add to these. xq;l,: The learning which is received (xql) by one generation and passed on to the next (explicitly described in Pr 4:1-4 and associated with rswm, t[d and hrwt, “teaching”), that is, the traditional body of knowledge enabling a sage to navigate through life. Fox (2000:62-63), in showing that this word is primarily associated with speaking (cf Pr 7:21; 16:21, 23; Dt 32:2; Job 29:23f) provides support not only for the understanding of xq;l, as the passing on of learning, but also (against his intention) for interpreting !ybih'l. in v 6 as causative (see below). 1184 HTS 62(4) 2006 J A Loader tAlBux.T;: A rare word meaning “skills” (cf Pr 11:4; 12:5; 20:18; 24:6; Job 37:12). It possibly related to lbexo, “sailor” and may suggest the idea of navigating through life (Gemser 1963:18, Whybray 1994:34), similarly rendered in the Septuagint: kube,rnhsin kth,setai). If this is right, it vividly illustrates the view of wisdom as life-skills (Lebenskunde). In any case it indicates the use to which the received sapiential tradition can be put in instructing the young. 6 Of what this addition consists, is now added. The infinitive !ybih'l. is the Hiphil infinitive construct of the verb !yb. Similar to the Qal forms of this verb, the Hiphil may mean “understand” (as in v 2), but often occurs in the meaning “bring to understanding”, “to impart understanding, “clarify”. The personal object can be formulated with l. (e g Job 6:24) or the accusativus personae (e. g. Is 28:9; 40:14; Neh 8:8), but need not be expressed (e. g. Is 28:19), whereas the matter being clarified may be introduced by B. (e. g. Neh 8:7) or may stand in the accusativus rei (Is 28:9, 196; Job 6:24). The latter is the case here. Fox’s objection that “whenever the causative use of this verb ... governs a single object, this is always the semantic indirect object (the person who receives the teaching), not the semantic direct object (the substance or message taught)” excludes relevant evidence. The question is not what happens when the causative use of the verb has one object, but whether it can govern a direct object at all, and of this we have at least two clear examples (Is 28:9; Job 6:24) and another possible one (Is 28:11). Moreover, his own view that “Proverbs 1:5a is offering to enhance the wise man’s rhetorical skills in teaching,” matches a causative understanding of !yb in v 6 better than a non-causative. In our verse the personal object is not expressed and the matter to be clarified is a fourfold accusative construed in a rigid synonymous parallelism (proverb // words of the wise; figure // their riddles). It is nonsensical to require a sage to listen so that he may himself acquire the competence to understand a 6 This is also the interpretation of the major German versions of Is 28:19; Luther (“Offenbarung deuten”), Elberfeld (“die Botschaft verständlich machen”) and the Einheitsübersetzung (“das Gehörte erklären”). It is also possible that this is the sense of the Hiphil found in Pr 8:5a: “Teach the simple shrewdness.” This would require the “men” and “people” addressed in 8:4 to be interpreted as humankind generally who should bring their inexperienced young to understand what shrewdness is, whereas the often proposed emendation of the second imperative (v 5b) from wnybh to wnykh would become plausible as a consequential clause declaring the intended consequence of the fulfilment of the first imperative: “Teach simple people understanding of shrewdness, so that the stupid may get their heart/mind in order” (cf below on Pr 8:5). HTS 62(4) 2006 1185 Metaphorical and literal readings of aphorisms in the Book of Proverbs proverb, since being a man of wisdom and understanding he already entails that capability. But if the sage listens to (that is, makes attentive use of) this book, his already existing learning may be expanded by the additional didactic skill of communicating the sense of proverbs, figures, riddles and other sapiential sayings. Therefore the verse neither is a mere statement of the obvious fact that both inexperienced young people (v 4) and established sages (v 5) may benefit from wisdom, nor does it simply point out that wisdom is a lifelong process (Whybray 1994:33). Although all of this is true (cf Pr 8:4- 5; 9:9), verses 5-6 go beyond the commonplace to bring the purpose of the book into sharper focus: reading the Book of Proverbs will benefit established sages in that their wisdom will be augmented by didactic abilities in the use of even the most enigmatic sapiential literary genres. hc'ylim:. This word is uncertain and occurs only twice in the Old Testament (the other instance being Habakkuk 2:6, where it is also used in association with lv'm ' and tAdyxi). The parallelism with tdoyxi, “riddles” in the second hemistich suggests that those commentators are right who follow Schultens (figuratio), in suggesting it means a figure, allusion or difficult saying of sorts.7 But this does not mean that the reference to tropes and figures denotes an injunction to find figurative meanings in the collected aphorisms. Since teachers are supposed to be able to help pupils understand such “figures”, that is, to explain them, the reference cannot be appealed to in support of such a sweeping thesis. 7 This verse articulates the guiding principle of the whole book and as such represents the redactor’s view of wisdom as such. The statement is repeated with slightly different formulation (wisdom instead of knowledge) in Pr 9:10. All real knowledge begins with the fear of God. hwhy ta;r>yI is an objective genitive and indicates recognition of Yahweh with the awe due to him, in other words: faith and its concomitant, obedience. The aspect of obedience is here highlighted in the second hemistich, where the sapiential discipline of accepting authority is said to be lacking in fools. The principle authority (tyviare) is God himself. The enterprise of wisdom is, therefore, religious. From the redactional perspective it means that the contents of the whole book are qualified by this condition. Being prepared to accept the authority of parents and teachers necessarily involves accepting that of God – 7 This interpretation is already found in Albertus Schultens’s commentary, Proverbia Salomonis. Versionem integram ad Hebraeum fontem expressit, atque commentarium adjecit, Leyden 1748, although his often accepted etymology (hcy'lmi . as a derivative of #wl/#yl) is no longer generally thought to be correct. 1186 HTS 62(4) 2006