Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 1 Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls: A Phenomenological Investigation Alice Quarles, Ed.D Principal Miami-Dade County Public Schools Email: [email protected] Nancy Maldonado, PhD Director of Education Virtual Sage Publishers Email: [email protected] Candace H. Lacey, PhD Program Professor Nova Southeastern University Email: [email protected] Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, CA, April 11-15, 2005. Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 2 Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls: A Phenomenological Investigation “Just as we are learning to value and conserve the air we breathe, the water we drink, the energy we use, we must learn to value and conserve our capacity for nurture. Otherwise, in the name of human potential, we will slowly but surely erode the source of our humanity” (Heffner, 1996). Context As a nation striving to compete in today’s global economic community, the value of human capital is even more recognized (Coleman, 1988; Putnam, 1995). Therefore, society and educators have embraced the expectation that “every child will succeed.” Developing in the nation’s youth the necessary attitudes, efforts, and conceptions of self to build success as students and later as adults continues to challenge educators. Faced with historic and existing societal challenges, educators seek solutions beyond the classroom doors. One of the celebrated panaceas has been the ever-growing number of mentorship programs. Historically, youth mentorship programs were designed to support, counsel and encourage high school youth in pursuit of a college education, direct them toward a career field, or to counsel troubled or delinquent youth into a more socially acceptable life-style (Lee & Cramond, 1999; Royse, 1998; Tierney, Grossman, & Resch, 1995). Although the focus of contemporary mentorship programs has a variety of objectives, the primary goal is to assist the youth of today toward becoming productive and successful citizens. Literature Review Introduction Greek mythology introduces mentoring as a model to foster in youth the skills necessary to succeed. Mentors have served throughout history as surrogate parents, Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 3 molding youth into successful adulthood. Today mentoring serves as a method of intervention and prevention. Mentoring programs have increased with a focus on building positive relationships between adult role models and young people in an effort to foster social competencies, promote academic motivation, and build a positive image of a possible self (Lee & Cramond, 1999; Tierney, et al., 1995). Social Capital Theory Coleman’s (1988) theory of social capital in the creation of human capital serves as the theoretical underpinning for this study. The term human capital was originally presented by economist T.W. Schultz (1961) who defined the concept as the enhancement of the individual’s ability to produce through education or training. Coleman (1988, 1990) furthered the concept of human capital through broadening its scope to include social and interpersonal skill development and interrelating the concept of social capital as a catalyst for building human capital. Coleman (1988, 1990) broadened the theory by defining social capital by its function and relation to human capital. He viewed social capital as a variety of different entities that facilitate action, including the interactions of individuals, the sharing of resources, and the combining of resources which make possible the achievement of certain ends that would not be possible in its absence (Coleman, 1988). Forms of social capital include the existence of obligation, expectation, trust, information sharing, norms, relations, and the extent of the obligation in an individual or group (Coleman, 1988). Therefore, Coleman’s theory on the function of social capital in building human capital serves as the theoretical foundation for mentoring programs and this study. Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 4 Social Capital and Self-Efficacy The correlation between supportive social relationships and the development of successful individuals is at the core of Coleman’s (1988, 1990) theory of social capital. He proposes that social capital builds human capital. Human capital is defined as the resources derived from educational attainment (1988). According to theory, lack of parental interactions due to single-parent households and dual-parents working outside the home diminishes social capital, compromising the building of human capital (Coleman, 1988, 1990). Therefore, mentoring, as a form of social capital, is a supportive interaction which fosters the development of human capital. Providing adult/nurturing individuals within the context of a supportive environment is at the heart of mentorship and the goal to build the social competencies that formulate a successful future among mentees. The perception is these relationships will foster positive change; however, there is little research to assess the impact of these programs on adolescent girls. Studies of the impact of mentorship related to social and academic factors have demonstrated mixed outcomes. Studies with select populations of at-risk minority males have resulted in insignificant differences related to self-esteem, attitudes toward drugs and alcohol, school absences, and disciplinary infractions (Royse, 1998). Other longitudinal studies with students from the ages of 10 to 16 and 13 to 18 demonstrated increased attendance, greater academic performance, increased applications to colleges, and less participation in high-risk behaviors (Johnson, 1998; Tierney, et al., 1995). The attributing factors to success were well-run, carefully-monitored programs with clear objectives (Grossman, 1999). Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 5 Tierney, et al. (1995) conducted a national impact study of the Big Brothers/Big Sisters Program with the largest proportion of the 959 subjects representing ages 10-16. The study explored the following: antisocial behavior, academics, relationships, self- concept, and social and cultural enrichment. Results indicated positive impacts in all the areas explored. Additionally, other studies focusing on mentoring elementary age students provided little formative data; but survey results indicated the building of positive relationships (Arwood, Jolivette & Massey, 2000; Terry, 1999). Research examining the impact of young girls indicates mentoring relationships yielded enhanced feelings toward the relationship, a greater valuing of the relationship, enhanced identification with the other, and the building of affection (Lucas, 1999) and positive self concept (Ryan & Olasov, 2000). As a select population, the impact of mentorship with adolescent girls has yet to be explored as related to the building of the self-concepts that attribute to a positive future self. The relationship between how individuals think about their potential and their future constitutes the theory of possible selves (Markus & Nuris, 1986). An adolescent’s self-knowledge and beliefs in possible selves in the present and future correlated to academic achievement, risk-taking behaviors, planning, career aspirations, and relationships (Anderman, Hicks & Machr, 1994; Anderman, Anderman & Hicks, 1998; Garcia & Pintrich, 1995; Ruvolo & Markus, 1992). Therefore, positive self-efficacy and future selves form the theoretical underpinnings and the foundation for developing in youth the conception of self to build successful students and successful adults. The challenge is how to provide for those students who lack the role models in their homes Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 6 necessary for development. There is often a lack of support due to the societal challenges that face many low income and minority families. The turbulence and the risk factors associated with adolescence can be life altering and impact engagement in behaviors resulting in either positive or negative self- perceptions and become determiners of present or future successes (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000). Bandura (1977, 1989) proposed that the development of self-efficacy, the beliefs about one’s capabilities to organize actions, exerts control over one’s performance and achievement of one’s goals in a given situation, and results in positive performance outcomes. Therefore, developing within the adolescent perseverance to achieve goals by attaining perceived competence, control, willpower, and positive expectancies, has resulted in a positive effect on future success (Bandura, et al., 2001). Adolescents’ perceptions of future career aspirations have also been linked to efficacy; influencing the types of careers they believe they are capable of pursuing (Bandura, et al., 2001; Wahl & Blackhurst, 2000). Additionally, the theory of possible selves is the relationship between how individuals think about their potential and their future, linking cognition and motivation (Markus & Nuris, 1986). This theory furthers the relationship between self-knowledge and the beliefs in possible selves in the present and future, to academic achievement, risk-taking behaviors, planning, career aspirations, and relationships (Anderman, Anderman & Griesinger, 1999; Anderman, et al., 1998; Garcia & Pintrich, 1995; Ruvolo & Markus, 1992). Therefore, adolescents’ self-efficacy and their perceptions of their future have a direct relationship on academic performance and ability to grow and cope in this continually-evolving world. Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 7 Risk Factors Currently, the most prominent risk factors threatening the health and education of adolescent girls are depression, delinquency, substance abuse, and pregnancy (AAUW, 1998). Adolescent girls who are from ethno-racial minority backgrounds are at high-risk for dropping out of school, with Black female students at an even higher rate than their male counterparts (NCES, 2001). Girls who drop out are less likely to return and complete school (NCES, 2001). Although teen pregnancy rates have steadily declined, the estimated teen pregnancy rate among teens (15-19 years old) is 98.7 per 1000 girls (CDC, 2000). Risk factors related to academic achievement among female students include the socioeconomic level of the family and the education level of the parents as well as the traditional roles of females that are espoused and expected in the cultural home setting, promoting the idea of family and home over achievement (Ginorio & Huston, 2001; Kao & Thompson, 2003). These social factors and cultural ideals are difficult to oppose, and schools have made little effort to counter this, focusing attention instead on male students who exhibit more overt behaviors. The Role of Mentorship As a method of early intervention and prevention, the numbers of mentorship programs have numerically increased (Sipe, 1996). The goal of mentorship is to build positive relationships with adult role models in an effort to foster social competencies, promote academic motivation, and build a positive image of self (Lee & Cramond, 1999; Tierney, et al., 1995). The perception of these nurturing adult/child relationships has been that they will foster positive change; however, there is little research to assess the impact of these programs. The primary focus of research is on the impact on academic progress, Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 8 attendance, and pro-social behaviors. There exist few empirical studies on at-risk adolescent females. Research has demonstrated the significance self-efficacy, aspirations, and possible selves have on the development of a positive vision of the future (Bandura, et al., 2001; Markus & Nurius, 1986). Limited research has indicated there were gender differences in belief in possible selves with adolescent girls yielding higher correlations with relationships rather than occupational future (Knox, Funk, Elliot & Bush, 2000). The relationship between self-efficacy, aspirations, and possible selves has been associated with the successful vision of the future. How these aspects of self-knowledge are impacted by disadvantaged at-risk adolescent girls’ participation in a formal mentoring relationship has not been explored. Society demands increased competencies among future citizens to compete in the global marketplace. Because of increases in standards-based education, the expectation that “every student will succeed,” and the drive to consistently reduce dropout rates, avenues of community support must be explored. As school-based mentorship programs are increasing, the impact on instructional time warrants additional studies. The purpose of this study was to develop an understanding of the phenomena that exists between the mentoring relationship and the development of self-efficacy, aspirations, and possible selves in high-risk adolescent female mentees. Methods Philosophical Paradigm As we began this journey we hoped to develop an understanding of the constructs held by the mentees, at-risk adolescent girls, and their mentors. In doing this, we focused Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 9 on consensus and remaining open to new interpretations as data are compiled over time and as new themes emerged. By focusing on the frame for inquiry and the purpose of the study, we framed this work in the research paradigm of constructivism (Denzin, & Lincoln, 1998). The goal of constructivism is to understand the complex world of experiences as interpreted from those most intimately involved in the experience. It was important to understand the meaning of what we were hearing from an emic point of view. Thus, we sought to develop, understand, and define the experiences we were exploring from the participants’ points of reference, leading to “Verstehen …the meaning of the social phenomena” (Denzin, & Lincoln, 1998, p. 223). We took our cues from Denzin and Lincoln (1998) and viewed Verstehen as a process to make sense of or interpret the everyday world and to form meanings and relevant structures from observing how people live, behave, and think within the world. Ontologically, the constructivist paradigm assumes a relativist construct. According to Denzin and Lincoln (1998), “realities are apprehendable in the form of multiple intangible constructions, socially and experientially based, local and specific in nature, and dependent for their form and content in the individual persons or groups holding the constructions” (p. 206). With this in mind, we south to recognize that the realities of the participants, our own realities, and the realities of the reader/audience might color the interpretation of the study (Creswell, 1998). Epistemologically, the constructivist paradigm reflects a transactional and subjectivist perspective (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). We have tried to minimize distance and “objective separateness” in the pursuit of knowledge (Creswell, 1998). As Mentoring and At-Risk Adolescent Girls 10 researchers, we know that we are interactively linked with the participants; thus, our findings were literally created as the study proceeded (Denzin, & Lincoln, 1998). emphasis of the constructivist is through the social construction of knowledge. Methodologically, as constructivists, we employed hermeneutical and dialectical techniques and interchanges (Denzin, & Lincoln, 1998). Through our interactions with the participants, dialectical interchanges resulted in a construct of social reality (Denzin, & Lincoln, 1998). Through our use of the inductive method of clustering participants’ statements regarding the phenomena, a descriptive narrative emerged. The end result of this work was the formulation of a consensus construction, one which is more sophisticated and informed than the hypothesis we had initially proposed (Denzin, & Lincoln, 1998). The postmodern philosophies of interpretive interactionism and hermeneutics served to support the primary methodological framework for the study. Postmodernism is characterized by various interrelated characteristics that parallel the thinking of the empirical social researchers focusing on changing the ways of thinking rather than on calling for action based upon these changes (Creswell, 1998). Interpretive interactionism employs a descriptive realistic picture of the participants in a clear contextual frame, without an over-emphasis on theorizing and actions of the lived experience (Denzin, & Lincoln, 1998). Denzin further states that interpretive interactionism requires engagement in cultural criticism of how the participants connect their lived experiences to the cultural representation of those experiences (cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). The philosophical correlate of hermeneutics, as defined by Slife and Williams (1995), is “to study meaningful human phenomena on the basis of practical