a ¥ oF Choy, ,% . . Marine Fisheries %° Lal 9=) B l u e C r a b arine Fisheries S\VEVv SWS IAL! < | / LJ LI \ Ls, W. L. Hobart, Editor J. A. Strader, Managing Editor On the cover: A mature female blue crab, Callinectes sapidus. NOAA Photo Library image. Photographer: Mary Hollinger, NOAA, NODC. 68(1— 4), 2006 Toward a Model for Richard B. Pollnac, Susan Abbott-Jamieson, Courtland Fisheries Social Impact Assessment Smith, Marc L. Miitler, Patricia M. Clay, and Bryan Oles Length-Weight Relationships of Dolphinfish, Coryphaena hippurus, and Wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri: Seasonal Effects of Spawning and Possible Migration in the Central North Pacific James H. Uchiyama and Christofer H. Boggs Skimmer Trawl Fishery Catch Evaluations Elizabeth Scott-Denton, Pat Cryer, Judith Gocke, Mike in Coastal Louisiana, 2004 and 2005 Harrelson, Kip Jones, James Nance, Jeff Pulver, Rebecca Smith, and JoAnne Williams Testing a Device to Exclude Ovigerous Blue Crabs, Callinectes sapidus, from Commercial Pots PaulJ .R udershausen and Marc J. Turano Index List of Papers U.S. DEPARTMENT The Marine Fisheries Review (ASSN 0090-1830) is pub printing this periodical has been approved by the Director of OF COMMERCE lished quarterly by the Scientific Publications Office, Na the Office of Management and Budget Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary tional Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point The NMFS does not approve, recommend, or endorse any Way N.E., BIN C15700, Seattle, WA 98115. Annual subscrip proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned in this tions are sold by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S publication. 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POSTMASTER: Send address changes for Oceans and Atmosphere source is appreciated for subscriptions for this journal to: Marine Fisheries Re Publication of material from sources outside the NMFS is view, c/o Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government not an endorsement, and the NMFS is not responsible for the Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. This issue, volume accuracy of facts, views, or opinions of the sources. The Sec 68 number |—4, was printed and distributed in January 2008. National Marine Fisheries Service retary of Commerce has determined that the publication of John Oliver, Acting Assistant this periodical is necessary for the transactiono f public busi- This publication is available online at Administrator for Fisheries ness required by law of this Department. Useo f the funds for http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/mcontent.htm Toward a Model for Fisheries Social Impact Assessment RICHARD B. POLLNAC, SUSAN ABBOTT-JAMIESON, COURTLAND SMITH, MARC L. MILLER, PATRICIA M. CLAY, and BRYAN OLES Introduction sessments as more useful if those as- economists’ use of jobs, income, or total sessments were provided in a format economic output in their models. For many years experienced fisheries analogous to fisheries economists’ and This paper presents the results of the social scientists have discussed develop- fisheries biologists’ formats. first phase of this group’s work. Well- ing a fisheries model for social impact This point was given further support being was selected as the dependent assessment (SIA) that would be more by Sharp and Lach’s (2003) survey measure for marine fisheries social compatible with the approaches taken of Federal and state fishery manag- impact assessment in this model. While by fisheries biologists and economists ers and decision makers in the Pacific this model is not the only possible ap- when assessing potential effects of Northwest. They were asked about their proach to social impact assessment, it management actions. They suspected knowledge of how to incorporate the does open a door to a room that is closer that fishery management council (FMC) social values of fishing communities to those currently occupied by marine members might see social impact as- into planning and decision-making. The fisheries economists and their biologist authors concluded that it is unlikely that counterparts. community information can be used in Historical Background fishery plan development or amend- Richard B. Pollnac is with the Marine Affairs Department, Washburn Hall, University of ment processes when it is presented in Social impact assessment began as Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881-0817 (e- a qualitative, descriptive format. a field in the 1960’s as people became mail: rpo4903u@ postoffice.uri.edu). Susan Ab- Stimulated by this discussion, the more concerned with human impacts bott-Jamieson is with the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Office of Science Office of Science and Technology of on the environment (Finsterbusch and and Technology, 1315 East West Hwy SSMC NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Ser- Freudenberg, 2002:408). The National 3, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Courtland Smith vice invited a group of marine fisheries Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of is with the Department of Anthropology, Ore- gon State University, 238 Waldo Hall, Corval- social scientists with expertise in social 1969! called for analyzing the impact of lis, OR 97331-6403. Mare L. Miller is with science modeling, quantitative methods, human actions on the environment when the School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington, 3707 Brooklyn Ave. NE, Seattle, and marine fisheries impact assessment designated changes were contemplated. WA 98105-6715. Patricia M. Clay is with the to create a conceptual model for predict- Early NEPA guidelines emphasized National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, ing the social impacts of fishery manage- environmental assessment and did not Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA, mailing address: NOAA/NMFS/STS, 1315 ment action alternatives using a limited require SIA’s. Few government agencies East West Hwy, SSMC 3, Silver Spring, MD set of quantitative and qualitative indica- had yet invested in the social science 20910. Bryan Oles is with IM Systems Group, tors. The resulting model was to be suit- expertise to do SIA’s. Social scientists, 7313 Trescott Ave., Takoma Park, MD 20912. Opinions and conclusions expressed or im- able for social impact assessment, and however, continued to perfect SIA meth- plied are solely those of the authors and do not it was to include a dependent measure odologies (Shields, 1974; Finsterbusch necessarily reflect the views or policy of the or output that would be analogous to the and Wolf, 1977; Finsterbusch et al., National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. 1983; Burch and DeLuca, 1984; Freud- enberg, 1986; Barrow, 1997; Becker 1997; Burdge, 1994, 2004; Vanclay, ABSTRACT—This paper presents a mod- the economisis’ and biologists’ assessments 2003; Taylor et al., 2004). el for Fisheries Social Impact Assessment and is therefore more useful for Fishery Preparation and passage of the Fish- (SIA) that lays the groundwork for devel- Management Council members. The paper ery Conservation and Management Act opment of fisheries-focused, quantitative was developed by anthropologists initially social assessments with a clear conceptual brought together in 2004 for an SIA Mod- of 1976 (now the Magnuson-Stevens model. The usefulness of current fisheries eling Workshop by the National Marine Fishery Conservation and Management SIA’s has been called into question by some Fisheries Service, NOAA. Opinions and Act or MSFCMA, also referred to as the as incompatible with approaches taken by conclusions expressed or implied are solely fisheries biologists and economists when those of the authors and do not necessarily assessing potential effects of management reflect the views or policy of the National 'See http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/regs/nepa/nepae- actions. Our model’s approach is closer to Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. qia.htm, accessed 25 May 2006. 68(1— 4) MSA?) led to efforts to gather social data an informed basis from which to begin ecosystem is “... a geographically and to carry out impact analysis specifi- SIA. While economists had been on specified system of organisms (includ- cally for fisheries (OSU, 1978; Acheson NMBS staff since its incarnation as the ing humans), the environment, and the et al., 1980). The National Marine Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in 1956 processes that control its dynamics’’.® Fisheries Service (NOAA-NMFS, 1994, (Hobart, 1995), and one anthropologist Another goal is to develop an SIA 2001, 2006), in association with social or sociologist had been in Headquarters model that is fully compatible with scientists, has been developing SIA ap- since 1974, NMFS hired its first regional ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries proaches since the 1980’s.* SIA methods social scientist (other than economists) management. were also being developed in other areas in 1992. By 2005, each NMFS region Well-Being, the Dependent Measure of resource management (Kogut, 1976; except the Southwest had at least one USDOT, 1982; Bryan, 1984).4 such social scientist, signaling a new The SIA model for marine resource The 1990's brought recognition that agency effort to develop its capability management is designed to predict progress on environmental problems to meet its obligations to examine so- changes in well-being. Well-being refers was neither rapid nor successful in part ciocultural regulatory impacts (Colburn to the degree to which an individual, because social and cultural dimensions et al., 2006). family, or larger social grouping (e.g. of resource management were not being firm, community) can be characterized Objectives given sufficient emphasis. The U.S. as being healthy (sound and functional), Forest Service gathered social scientists Building on previous government happy, and prosperous. from many agencies to develop common experience and an extensive literature One might argue that changes in SIA approaches (ICGPSIA, 1994). By on SIA, our effort takes SIA for marine economic welfare, such as changes in 1997, SIA became required in many resource management a step further. income or wealth are adequate mea- Federal programs.° The Interorganiza- Our goals include making SIA more sures of well-being. Social scientists, tional Committee on Guidelines and quantitative and useful. First, data de- however, have shown that fishing and in- Principles for SIA published revised rived through SIA should be amenable teraction with marine resources is much SIA guidelines and principles in 2003 to comparison across space and time more than solely an economic activity (ICGPSIA, 2003). and should be cross-referenced with (Acheson et al., 1980; Anderson, 1980; In marine resource management, lack biophysical and economic data. Smith, 1981; McCay et al., 1993; Bunce of success with fishery management led Biophysical and economic data are et al., 2000). Well-being is affected by to changes in the fishery management typically more quantitative than the a large number of sociocultural and process and passage of the Sustainable social science data currently collected economic variables that are impacted Fisheries Act (SFA) of 1996. National for SIA. The quantitative natures of by management decisions, making it a Standard 8 of the SFA requires explicit biophysical and economic data facilitate suitable measure in this context (Colfer consideration and minimization of com- the comparison of datasets collected in and Byron, 2001; Eckersley, et al., 2001; munity impacts. The NMFS (1998) sub- disparate spatial and temporal frames. Gullone and Cummins, 2002; Suh and sequently published National Standard To obtain quantitative social science Deiner, 2003). There is a substantial 8 Guidelines® and has directed efforts data for comparative purposes that literature on this widely used construct toward community profiling to serve as can be linked with biophysical and as well as on its operationalization at economic data, variables need to be the individual, community, and national identified, defined, and operationalized levels of analysis. It has the advantage See http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/sustainable in a consistent way, and sufficient data that it can be measured in multiple ways fishereries_act.pdf, accessed 25 May 2006 must be gathered to make comparisons *An online version for NMFS of the 1994 ICGP Statistically and scientifically defensible. See http://ecosystems.noaa.gov/whats_new.htm, SIA Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact Assessment can be found at http://www.nmfs. Operationalization means measuring accessed 25 May 2006. Current presentations on developing NMFS’s ecosystem based manage- noaa.gov/sfa/social_impact_guide.htm, accessed variables in a way that is replicable, ment programs are given here. 2 May 2007. reliable, accurate, and valid. It means ‘The parenthetical phrase “including humans” ‘See Bowen, Palmer. 1980. Social impact assess the measure is comprehensible to all does not appear in the NOAA Fisheries Glossary ment forest planning and decision making: Tech nical review draft. USDA, For. Serv., Northern researchers conducting SIA. (Blackhart, et al., 2005) definition of ecosystem (p. 11), however it has been included in the defi- Region, Missoula, Mont., for an additional refer The approach presented here empha- nition at least since 2003 appearing in internal ence sizes the fact that humans are an impor- memos from the NMFS Chief Scientist to others See the United States General Services Admin outside NMFS, and is part of the definition used istration’s 1997 Call-in Fact Sheet at http://www. tant component of marine ecosystems. in diverse presentations to diverse audiences. gsa.ene.com/factsheet/0397/03_97_9.htm, NMES has committed itself to devel- This emphasizes that humans are among the accessed 12 August 2005. An alternative refer oping ecosystem-based approaches to organisms whose behavior must be considered ence http://www.epa.gov/superfund/action/guid when studying marine ecosystems. For example ance/SILitRevFinal.pdf, accessed 24 July 2006, marine resource management’ (NMFS, see Stephen Murawski’s 19 May 2006 presenta- contains a table comparing actual numbers of 1999), an approach compatible with tion “Ecosystems approaches to management: SIA’s done by agency 1979-1994. the approach presented here. The cur- The EGT’s work in progress”, online at http:// See http://www.st.nmfs.gov/stl/econ/cia/sia/nat ecosystems.noaa.gov/whats_new.htm, accessed stand-final.pdf, accessed 5 May 2007. rent NOAA working definition of an 25 May 2006. Marine Fisheries Review using established and publicly available indicators for different levels of analysis EXTERNAL (Sharpe, 1999; Ryan and Deci, 2001; FORCES Sirgy, 2902; Zumbo, 2002), and it can be related to the narrower economic measures of welfare. MANAGEMEN SIA Procedure Fea The first step carried out by an analyst x CTIVITY in an SIA is a scoping process to deter- ATTRIBUTES mine the sociocultural variables relevant to the management questions (NMFS, 2001). This can lead to initial sketches ACTIVITY SATISFACTION of the sociocultural system that may be affected by the management action. Management actions will affect a range INDIVIDUAL - |< q—p | SOCIAL | <<—> SOCIAL/ of social entities including individuals, ATTRIBUTES PROBLEMS COMMUNITY firms, families, and communities’, and ATTRIBUTES therefore the SIA must attend to these as distinct units of analysis. Special attention should be given to social groups that may gain or lose from - WELL- the management choices made. These BEING populations may not always be readily visible at public hearings or on news- Figure |.—General marine resource SIA model. Eco- paper op-ed pages. Scoping, therefore, system does not appear as an element in the model because requires an assessment of each part of everything in the diagram is part of the ecosystem. It is the sociocultural system that is likely incorrect to add ecosystem to external forces, although to be affected, with specific attention to parts of the ecosystem are “external forces” because the any marginalized populations because community is also part of the ecosystem. environmental justice issues may also be involved. A variety of instruments available for the sociocultural system, showing that Of primary concern is measuring how these assessments are given in the ap- external forces influence management the well-being of system participants pendix. Limited financial resources, strategies, which, in turn, influence will change. The objective is not to in- time constraints, and staff skill level human activities with regard to marine clude every sociocultural element in the might further limit the variables and resources. These changes in activities system; it is to do an initial assessment measures chosen. impact satisfaction with the activities, that identifies the critical populations More important than simply identi- and this influences aspects of individu- that have a significant stake in the man- fying variables, however, is discerning als and the communities in which they agement action and the issues of concern the relationships among them. This live, as illustrated by the individual and to these populations that may increase is because the impact on one variable social attributes (Fig. 1). The arrows or decrease their well-being. or variable set may be transmitted to in this figure reflect interrelationships The next step following the scoping another linked variable or variable set (cause-effect, resonance, cumulative process is to operationalize the relevant through cumulative processes, feedback impacts) between these classes of variables by defining the variables in loops, and other systematic relation- variables that will be explained below a way that facilitates measurement.!° ships. These relationships can exist as the general model is developed for both within single levels of analysis commercial, subsistence, and recre- "Communities can be spatial, occupational, (e.g. the community) and across levels ational fisheries. interest-based, cultural, or ethnic. With refer- of analysis (e.g. the individual, the ence to the MSA, communities designated SIA in Three under National Standard 8 must be place- family, and the community). Some of based, but communities based on other crite- these relationships are explored in the Types of Fisheries ria may be appropriate for the general social following sections. Although there are many ways to impact assessment required for all communi- ties involved in fishing. classify U.S. fisheries, fishery managers General Fishery SIA Model It is important to note here that one of the identify three categories: commercial, bases for people’s behavior is perception, even The general marine resource SIA subsistence, and recreational fisheries, though those perceptions sometimes deviate from other empirical measures. model presented in Figure | depicts and their subtypes. We consider how 68(1—4) EXTERNAL FORCES Population pressure LONGEVITY External = stakeholder pressure HEART Fish stock DISEASE level : MENTAL HEALTH ANXIETY MANAGEMENT LOW SELF-ESTEEM - Regulations WORRY - Management TENSION structure B JOB FAMILY SATISFACTION PSYCHOSOMATIC VIOLENCE ACTIVITY ILLNESS ATTRIBUTES Seasonal changes IMPAIRED in fishery TURNOVER INTERPERSONAL - Fishing units & gears RELATIONSHIPS Cosi of entry - Participatory structure ABSENTEEISM Resource use leve - Ownership patterns Location - AScatfievtiyt y :mobi lity CHARAACCTITVEIRTIYS TICS PERFJOORB MANCE ACTIVITY SATISFACTION Figure 3.— Impacts of job satisfaction. v INDIVIDUAL| PRSOOCBILAELM S % CATOTSMORMCIUIBNAULIT-TE YS | techniques, numbers of fishermen, and ATTRIBUTES rap other variables (the appendix lists activ- - Social stratifPicatic | Parthiacriapcatnetr istics Power structure ity attributes) has an influence on various Mental healtt Occupation attributes of the occupation of fishing. - PRheysisliiceanlc e healt |} Cosmstomrluiucdnatriuirtteyy Impacts of the changes will vary - Personality traits Resilience according to attributes of the impacted fishery, fishermen, and community— Sia WELL- some are more resilient (see glossary) BEING than others. Smith et al. (2003), for ex- ample, discuss some factors influencing Figure 2 Simplified fishery SIA model with selected indicators. differential resilience of fishing families impacted by the Florida net fishing ban, SIA can be conducted for each of these as well as the commercial sector of the and Gilden et al. (1999) discuss Oregon three kinds of fisheries. The examples marine recreational fishery, including fishing communities’ differential ability that follow build from descriptions of charter boat operators, party boat op- to cope in the face of complex regional the genera) ecosystem and i))ustrate erators, guides, marina operators, bait changes. Individual and social resil- relationships among variables that and tackle dealers, and other entities ience are complicated variables that impact well-beine. In the most general appropriate to the SIA. represent an ability to cope with change, of formulations, a fishery is a system in The simplified model (Fig. |) pres- and they are related to other social and which humans are linked to “fish.” ents some rather obvious relationships, psychological variables including social and Figure 2 identifies for illustrative support systems (both familial and exter- Commercia) Fisheries purposes a few of the specific variables nal), self-esteem, and perceived control First, we will examine potential im- included in each of the general catego- (Mederer, 1999). Additionally, Mederer pacts of management on commercial ries in Figure |. A more comprehensive (1999) notes that resilience is not a fixed fishermen!! and shore side entities that list of variables can be found in the ap- attribute, but results from interaction constitute the commercial sector (e.g. pendix. We argue that external forces, between family and individual attributes processors and dealers, ice houses, etc.), such as population pressure, declining and external circumstances. fish stocks, environmental activism, and Individual fishermen accustomed to climate change influence the manage- a fishery with one set of attributes must '!Following the convention of most people who ment of fisheries. In turn, management, then become accustomed to changes, fish, we employ the term “fishermen” to denote both males and females. which can impact fishing targets, times, some of which may impact their level Marine Fisheries Review of activity satisfaction and ultimately coast, Canada, Southeast Alaska (see percentage of fishermen manifesting their well-being. In the instance of an Pollnac and Poggie, 2006), Southeast these traits. occupation like commercial fishing we Asia (Philippines, Vietnam and Indo- Management measures which influ- will refer to the activity satisfaction of nesia: Pollnac et al., 2001), and Central ence aspects of fishing (e.g. quotas, time individuals as job satisfaction, which is America (Pollnac and Ruiz-Stout, limits, numbers of days fishing avail- more commonly used in the literature. 1977). able, and a myriad of other constraints A great deal of research (Apostle et Pollnac and Poggie (1980) suggest on many aspects of the fishing activity), al., 1985; Pollnac and Poggie, 1988; that this is an attitude shared by most will have differential impacts on job Gatewood and McCay, 1990; Binkley, fishermen. For example, in response to satisfaction, ranging anywhere from 1995; Pollnac et al., 2001) has linked job a question asking a sample of fisher- negative to positive, depending on the satisfaction to 1) individual attributes men (n=153) from 11 villages what action. Regulations that require fisher- such as mental health and longevity, they like about fishing in comparison men to spend either more or less time and 2) social problems such as family to other occupations, the most frequent than usual at home can impact not just violence, absenteeism, and job perfor- response category was “sport-pleasure” job satisfaction but family life, and both mance (Fig. 3 gives a more complete list (35%) followed by “income” (31%) and are important components of well-being. of impacts!). “independence” (16%). With regard to Regulations requiring large capital in- While job satisfaction is an impor- the “sport-pleasure” category, fishermen vestments can limit investments in other tant aspect of all occupations, it is actually said that fishing is like a sport. important areas such as vessel mainte- especially significant with regard to a They emphasized the sporting aspect nance, the fishermen’s homes, and their fishery—including both commercial of struggling with fish as well as the children’s education—all impacting fishermen and commercial sectors of the pleasurable aspects of being on the sea well-being. Changes that result in the recreational fishing industry (e.g. char- and in the fresh air (Pollnac and Ruiz- loss of fishing opportunities, however, ter boat operators and fishing guides). Stout, 1977). will have the greatest negative impacts, The structure of job satisfaction among These components of job satisfac- as alternative income projects are often these groups manifests a common tion are related to a personality trait problematic for this group (Pollnac et component!? that is not always found in that serves to adapt fishermen to the al., 2001; Sievanen et al., 2005; Pollnac other occupations—a self-actualization dangers and risks of their occupation and Poggie, 2006). component that includes “adventure” (see Pollinac et al., 1998 and Pollnac Social problems associated with job and “challenge” (Smith, 1981; Apostle and Poggie, 2006 and the references dissatisfaction, as well as other variables et al., 1985; Pollnac and Poggie, 1988: therein). Overall, an extensive literature mentioned above, can impact aspects of Gatewood and McCay, 1990; Binkley, supports the contention that fishermen community structure including commu- 1995; Pollnac, et al., 2001; Pollnac and manifest the personality traits of being nity solidarity and levels of compliance Poggie, 2006). adventurous, active, aggressive, and with fishery regulations. In turn, levels These concepts have been described courageous (Poggie and Gersuny, 1974; of compliance can feed back and impact by fishermen as including the thrill of the Pollnac, 1988; Binkley, 1995). aspects of fishery management. Further, hunt, the challenge of facing the power We are not arguing that it is only these other aspects of community structure, and expanse of the sea, and the overall personality traits that result in individu- such as occupational structure, can adventure of pitting oneself against the als choosing to become fishermen. They impact activity attributes. Community elements and finding fish. also enter the occupation as a means of power structure, which might include These attitudes towards the occupa- making money, because their family or powerful fisheries organizations, can tion of fishing are found in the U.S. east friends are fishermen, and/or because directly influence management as well it is a traditional occupation in their as the external forces that influence man- community. agement. Finally, individual attributes, 'PUSHEW (1973) gives an important early discus- What we do argue, however, is that social problems, and community struc- sion on heart disease and psychosomatic illness relationships to work. Subsequent research con- individuals not manifesting these per- ture all have an effect on well-being. tinues to confirm a relationship between aspects sonality traits would not be satisfied A familiar example of the relation- of occupation or work conditions and cardiovas- with the risks to personal safety and ships between some of the variables in cular disease as well as other diseases. Faragher et al. (2005) provides a recent meta-analysis of production associated with the dangers, Figure 2 would be the external forces the literature on the relationship between job challenges, and uncertainty of the occu- (e.g. industry organizations) that have satisfaction and health including cardiovascular disease, and Heslop et al. (2002) is a longitudinal pation (as illustrated by the arrow from influenced managers in some areas to study of the relationships between job satisfac- “individual attributes,” which includes implement individual fishery quotas tion, cardiovascular risk factors, and mortality. personality, to “job satisfaction” in Fig. (IFQ’s) (management). In Alaska this An extensive literature exists in this area. '3Other components found among fishermen, 2) and would either be less efficient as was accomplished with the Pacific hali- such as “basic needs” like safety, cleanliness, fishermen or drop out of the occupa- but (Hippoglossus stenolepis)/sablefish and earnings, are also commonly found associ- tion entirely (Binkley, 1995; Pollnac et (Anoplopoma fimbria) [FQ program, ated with other occupations (per references cited in footnote }2). al., 1998). This could then increase the which eliminated the short “derby 68( j- 4) fishing”'* seasons, and spread fishing expense of unemployed crew members holds (range 2 to 11) and 17 individuals out over a longer period (activity attri- and those who have been unable to (range 2 to 41). butes). Interviews conducted as part of accumulate multiple permits (social- Further, the simplest cases of sub- a research project in Southeast Alaska community attributes, social problems). sistence fishing involve production of in 2002-03 (cf. Pollnac and Poggie, Thus, the well-being of the IFQ holders fish for human food, thus reducing the 2006) indicated that in some fisheries increased while that of the unemployed costs of feeding a family. Sometimes, in Alaska, the IFQ also led to a de- former crew decreased. however, the harvest is used to feed crease in crew size (activity attributes) Fishermen forced out of the industry animals essential to subsistence activity. since there was no longer a need for who have moved into other occupations, For example, in the Kotzebue District a large crew to maximize catches in a as well as those who see no chance to of Alaska, about 9% of the subsistence short period, as there had been during improve their position in the fishery, salmon harvest for 2003 was used to the short pre-IFQ management fishing have decreased job satisfaction with its feed sled dogs, which was down from a season. With the catch spread out over attendant negative impacts, including high of between 29 and 34% in 1995-97 a longer period, the seasonal changes in decreases in well-being. Those with (Georgette et al., 2004). the fishery! (activity attributes) were IFQ’s have increased job satisfaction In more complex but also relatively also influenced. Further, with a smaller (individual attributes) and well-being. common cases, especially those involv- crew the owner could rely on a few Hence, well-being has improved for ing distribution networks, the producers family members, reducing the need to some and decreased for others (cf. gain prestige and social security, rather hire nonfamily crew members (activity Pollnac and Poggie, 2006). Loy (2006) than monetary income, by providing attribute), and in turn reducing the oc- reports on a similar situation developing for networks of consumers (Kishigami, cupational mobility of those not coming in a new quota fishery for the Alaskan 2005; Stewart, 2005), and the act of from fishing families (social-commu- Bering Sea/Aleutians Islands king sharing reinforces intra-group solidar- nity attributes, individual attributes). and Tanner crab fishery (Paralithodes ity and cooperation so essential among In addition, the cost of an IFQ became camtschaticus, P. platypus, Lithodes subsistence peoples (Freeman, 2005; so large (activity attributes) that many aeguispinus, L. couesi, Chionoecestes Stewart, 2005). The best producers har- young people lost the hope of ever ac- bairdi, C. opilio, C. tanneri, and C. vest more than they and their immediate cumulating enough capital to enter the angulatus), which has not only IFQ’s families need, and they share the excess fishery (individual attributes), hence but also individual processing quotas with relatives and other people in the restricting their occupational mobility (IPQ’s) for processors. Similar problems community, contributing to their relative (social-community attributes). Many associated with IFQ’s in other fisheries prestige, and perhaps more importantly, former crewmembers were forced to have been noted by Childers (2007). to a sense of community and coopera- leave the fishery (social-community Discussion concerning measurement tion among the people of the community attributes, social problems); some also and analyses of these variables is found (Magdanz et al., 2002). lost hope of ever becoming a boat owner in the appendix. Finally, among some peoples, a sub- (individual attributes), hence impacting sistence-based lifestyle is an important Subsistence Fisheries fishery employment level (social-com- aspect of cultural identification, and the munity attributes, social problems). Subsistence fishing refers to fishing product itself may form an essential part Relationships between these variables activity directed at capturing fish for of specific cultural activities (Norris, are shown in Figure 4, which illustrates consumption rather than sale. The sim- 2002). Other than the preceding aspects the impacts of these changes in the oc- plest example would involve a person of subsistence fishing, which are vastly cupation on other important variables who captures fish for consumption by more important in this sector than in including well-being. his or her nuclear household.'® More commercial fishing (Fig. 2), many of The changed occupation structure of complex examples involve capture and the same issues identified for assessing the impacted communities has resulted distribution networks of families with no the commercial fishery apply. in greater social stratification, with sale involved. For example, Magdanz et An example will help illustrate some relatively well-off IFQ holders (some al. (2002), conducting research in Wales of the relationships between the vari- holding multiple permits) gaining more and Deering, Alaska, using network ables included in Figure 2 as well as the power in the community and increasing analyses, identified eight production and subsistence-specific variables discussed their influence on management, at the distribution networks in Wales and six above relating to our model. The Makah in Deering. Networks averaged 5 house- Nation members in Washington, like 'SDerby fishing is a fishery of brief duration many of the originai inhabitants of the during which fishermen race to take as much '©In the context of subsistence fishing, “consump- northwest coast of North America, have catch as they can before the fishery closes. This tion” has two meanings. For some subsistence typically leads to congested fishing grounds and fishermen, fish provide food (i.e. nourishment in a long tradition of seal (Callorhinus unsafe fishing conditions, as well as lower qual- the form of protein and fats) for the body. For ursinus, pre-1900; Phoca vitulina and ity fish and lower prices per pound. others, fish provide food (i.e. spiritual and ritual Zalaphus californianus today'’) hunting 'SAnnual round is another commonly used term nourishment) for the soul. Both kinds of subsis- for seasonal changes in fishing activity. tence fishing are proper objects of SIA. stretching for thousands of years into Marine Fisheries Review a EXTERNAL FORCES , - Stakeholder pressure - Industry organizations EXTERNAL FORCES M- AReNgAuGlaEtMioEnNsT MANAGEMENT - Marine resource levels - IFQs - Re- g1u9l2a0t-i1o9n6s0 /70 - Ma- rSienael proepsuoluartcieo n vasliuzee bounty for seals - Seal economic value - 1972 MMPA bans - Perception of seals sealing, includes - Stakeholder pressure Makah -Treaty rights ACTIVITY ATTRIBUTES - Makah permitted - Cost of entry-IFQ - Enfortcoe mseeanlt /compliance - Participation - Makah continue to structure-crew hunt ACTIVITY ATTRIBUTES - Seasonal changes in - Seasonal changes fishery "Scach in fishery - Activity mobility -Incidental sealing ACTIVITY od -Ex-fishermen/ -Directed sealing SATISFACTION new occupations - Resource use level SOCIAL-COMMUNITY ATTRIBUTES SOCIAL PROBLEMS C |A CTIVITY SATISFACTION | - Community solidarity - Conflict ie - Income/benefit - Family stresses - Seal as community food SOCIAATLT-RICBOUMTMEUSN ITY Neo - Searle siomuprocret andti stirni bution I-- NLMDeoIfbnsiVetesIac hlDoeh UmroAihmpLenaea gn l tAohfTa TRIBUTES --- SPOoco--ccFwOiiuecasplcrlheau evtperssialytt to rrinaueotacimnltfap uilrlcs eaot tyrmiumoocnbe tinultri et y - Ph-- yNADsIuiTiteNcrTtDaiaRlItr iIyVo BIhne sDUaaUTltAtEihLsS f action i- Re-OgSvuOelrCatIt Ao&rL) y coPnvReorOnt-B cLvoEimoM plSlait iaonncse - Cu--- lHTStouEucnrKssitaey aleasl lrmt aehsihempeurn rcniteuttseraitingnitaeggyn e c ef rom - Personality traits - Traditional sealing - Scofflaw practice WELL-BEING Figure 4.— Model of relationships between external fac- Figure 5.— Model of relationships between external fac- tors, mediating variables, and well-being from the Alaska tors, mediating variables, and well-being among the Makah Pacific halibut and sablefish IFQ programs. Nation members. the prehistoric past (Sepez, 2001).'§ their own boats and gear in the 1890's. Figure 5 models the relationships dis- Seal products formed a significant and This resulted in a high level of well- cussed in the following example. desired part of the diet, and the hunting being for the Makah. In the first part of the 20th century and distribution of these products were During the 1890's the United States harbor seals were considered pests by important elements in a communal began regulating sealing through inter- society at large (i.e. not the Makah), in distribution system, confirming social national agreements, and seizures of pari due to their voracious consumption relationships and bestowing prestige on Makah boats occurred despite the fact of other marine life (external forces). the hunters. that the Treaty of Neah Bay gave the From the 1920’s up until 1960 in Wash- This tradition and its associated Makah the right to fish, whale, and seal ington and 1970 in Oregon, bounty knowledge led the hunters to be hired in accustomed grounds, and Makah programs were implemented by the as crew members on sealing schooners well-being declined.!? states (management), and Makah hunt- in the late 1860's, eventually purchasing The Makah, contending that the treaty ers could collect a bounty for each seal gave them the right to hunt, continued as well as keep seal products for con- sealing, leading to further seizures. This sumption. Later perceptions of marine '/The Makah’s seal hunting has usually encom- passed several species at any given time. See J. resulted in a generalized distrust of both mammals as being in danger of extinc- Sepez, In press, Historical Ecology of Makah government resource management and tion, as well as a developing belief in the Subsistence Foraging Patterns, J. Ethnobio., commitment to treaty rights. This brief larger society that these mammals are and M. Etnier and J. Sepez, In press, Changing patterns of sea mammal exploitation among the history provides the background to help somehow special: (external forces) led Makah. /n D. Papagianni, R. Layton, H. Masch- explain the social impacts of interre- to the passage of the Marine Mammal ner (Editors), Time and change: archaeological and anthropological perspectives on the long lationships between efforts to manage Protection Act (MMPA) in 1972. This term in hunter-gatherer societies, Oxbow Books, seal populations and aspects of Makah resulted in prohibiting the Makah from Oxford, U.K., for a full discussion of historical society and culture in the 20th century. harvesting seals for any purpose, includ- and current Makah seal hunting. ing the retention of incidental catch 'SFor specific references concerning aspects of Makah seal hunting discussed here consult Sepez '’The assessment of Makah relative well-being (management). (2001). We would like to thank the author for her is made based on Sepez’s (2001) research, and The Makah, believing that the Treaty willingness to discuss this section as it was being includes personal communication with her spe- written and for reviewing the final product. cific to this issue. of Neah Bay gave them the right to harvest seals for subsistence, continued beaches, riverbanks), 3) anglers who include the islands of San Miguel, Santa to hunt (social problems) resulting in rent boats that they operate, 4) anglers Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, and Santa citations and confiscation of the seals who fish on charter boats (see glossary) Barbara—lie off the California cities of (management). Due to these enforce- with captains and crew, 5) anglers who Santa Barbara and Los Angeles. ment activities, sealing was reduced fish on party boats (see glossary) with The islands and the adjacent marine (activity attributes), denying hunters a captains and crew, and 6) anglers who environment have long been valued for pursuit they enjoyed (activity satisfac- fish in tournaments and derbies. their considerable fishing resources and tion) and one that provided them with As pointed out earlier, commercial wildlife amenities. In 1980, Federal food and prestige in the community and subsistence fishermen often con- actions created the Channel Islands (social-community attributes). gregate and reside in villages, commu- National Park and also the Channel Seal products thus became scarce nities, small towns, and neighborhoods. Islands National Marine Sanctuary in the community distribution system, Although recreational fishermen do, at (CINMS).?! The park boundary extends reducing an important contributor to times, dwell in a particular geographic to | n.mi. off the islands; the sanctuary social solidarity and social security region, they are also very likely to be boundary extends to 6 n.mi. offshore (social-community attribute). The re- widely distributed. In many instances (management). duced availability of seal products in of fishery management, recreational Beginning in the late 1990’s, a the community also negatively impacted fishermen are better regarded analyti- combination of special-interest-group nutrition and dietary satisfaction (indi- cally as acommunity of interest than as initiatives (external forces), innovative vidual attributes). Violations of the ban, a place-based community. state legislation, and natural resource however, continued (social problems), Recreational fishing has enormous management actions culminated in the both covertly by changing sealing times value to participants and those who creation of a network of MPA’s (man- and locations (activity attributes) and provide direct services and equipment, agement) in California waters (NMPAC, overtly, with seal being consumed at as well as local communities. While rec- 2003; Bernstein et al., 2004). In 1998, community parties (social problems). reational fishing is frequently discussed the California Fish and Game Commis- These continuing violations contributed in terms of its economic value, it also sion (CFGC), which sets fishery policy to a scofflaw attitude regarding official has important social and cultural values for California state waters, received U.S. Government management efforts (Smith, 1980).?T°he sociocultural value a recommendation from a group of (individual attribute, social problem). of recreational fishing can be measured citizens (including a very prominent Taken together, all these factors on multiple levels including relation- recreational fisherman) who had formed contributed to a decreased sense of ships associated with the fishing trip the Channel Islands Marine Resources both individual and social well-being. itself and with the experience of fishing Restoration Committee to set aside 20% Reinterpretation of the MMPA in (e.g. with family or friends), with dis- of a | n.mi. zone around the northern 1994 led to amendments, once again tribution of the catch, and with talking Channel Islands for no-take marine allowing Native American groups to about fishing, i.e. “fish talk.” There reserves (external forces). harvest marine mammals as provided are also benefits to the individual such In response to this request and in in their treaty rights, hence, beginning as fulfilling psychological needs like recognition of the need for a commu- the process of reducing the negative independence, risk taking, relaxation, nity process, CINMS and the California impacts that occurred as a result of the and identity affirmation (Smith, 1980; Department of Fish and Game (CDFG), original act. Ditton et al., 1992; Fedler and Ditton, which implements CFGC policies, de- 1994; Ditton, 1996; Fedler, 2000; Ditton veloped a joint Federal/state partnership Recreational Fisheries and Sutton, 2004). to examine MPA issues in the sanctu- We turn now to those who fish for To illustrate the kinds of analytical ary.”* In 1999, California enacted the other than commercial and subsistence questions an SIA might address in the Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA). reasons. For convenience, we employ context of a recreational fishery, we This landmark legislation established recreational fishing as a cover term draw upon events in southern California a legal mandate for the creation of a to denote leisure-based fishing which between 1998 and 2003 that resulted in system of MPA’s (management). includes the most casual forms of fish- the designation of a network of marine ing, the most serious forms of fishing by protected areas (MPA’s) in the Channel *!Public Law 96-199 created the Channel Islands sportsmen, and also the “expense fish- Islands area. The simplified fishery SIA National Park. The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary was designated under the ing” of those who fish for pleasure but model (Fig. 2) is again our starting point, authority of the Marine Protection, Research and sell their catch to cover some costs. and the specific variables in the follow- Sanctuaries Act of 1972. Pub.L. 92-532. See Fed. Recreational fishing takes place in ing example are illustrated in Figure 6. Regis., 45(193): 1980, Rules and Regulations, p. 65200. a variety of settings. Variants on the The Channel Islands of interest—which 2-Discussion here is limited to Phase I (1999 recreational fishing theme include: 1) 2003) which concerned Channel Island National anglers fishing from their own boats, 2) ODriver (1983) provides a valuable master list of Marine Sanctuary waters under state jurisdiction. items and domains of experience for exploring Phase II which concerns CINMS waters under anglers fishing from shore (e.g. on piers, recreation fishermen’s preferences. Federal jurisdiction still continues. Marine Fisheries Review