Juan Lorenzo · William Doll Editors Levees and Dams Advances in Geophysical Monitoring and Characterization Levees and Dams Juan Lorenzo William Doll (cid:129) Editors Levees and Dams Advances in Geophysical Monitoring and Characterization 123 Editors JuanLorenzo William Doll Department ofGeology andGeophysics EastTennessee Geophysical Services, LLC LouisianaState University Oak Ridge,TN, USA BatonRouge,LA, USA Introduction byÖzYilmaz ISBN978-3-030-27366-8 ISBN978-3-030-27367-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27367-5 ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2019 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Introduction Only a third of the world’s great rivers remain free-flowing—just 90 of the 246 rivers more than 1000-km-long flow without interruption. The world’s rivers are interrupted by dams and levees, which constitute critical components of the infrastructures of most nations in the world. They serve indispensable functions— irrigation, water supply, flood control, electric generation, and recreation. Safe operationandmaintenanceofdamsandleveesarecrucialforbothsustainingthese functions, and avoiding potential disaster and loss of life. Moreover, a substantial number of dams and levees in many countries are nearing the end of their life spans—requiring close monitoring of their structural safety. Storm surge barriers of the Netherlands and New Orleans are two of the most extremeengineering worksintheworld. Much ofthelandmassoftheNetherlands hasbeenreclaimedfromtheNorthSeabylevees anddamsbuiltoverthepast two thousand years. The Delta Works in the Netherlands is the largest flood protection project in the world. This project consists of 13 surge barriers. The Oosterscheldekeringisthelargestsurgebarrier intheworld—9kmlong.Thedam isbasedon65concretepillarswith62steeldoors,each42mwide.Itisdesignedto protecttheNetherlandsfromfloodingfromtheNorthSea.TheMaeslantkeringisa storm barrier with two movable arms—when the arms are open, the waterway remains an important shipping route and when the arms close, a protective storm barrier is formed for the city of Rotterdam. Closing the arms of the barrier is completely automated without human intervention. The Great Wall of Louisiana is a storm surge barrier constructed near the confluenceofandacrosstheGulfIntracoastalWaterwayandtheMississippiRiver GulfOutletnearNewOrleans.Thebarrierrunsgenerallynorth–southfromapoint eastofMichoudCanaltotheBayouBienvenueflood-controlstructure.Navigation gates on the barrier reduce the risk of storm surge coming from Lake Borgne and the Gulf of Mexico. Every four years, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) issues a report card for the American infrastructure. The report card depicts the condition andperformance of Americaninfrastructure inthefamiliarform ofaschool report card—assigning letter grades based on the physical condition and needed v vi Introduction investments for improvement. The 2017ASCEgrade for levees anddams isD—a cause for concern and a call for action. The nationwide network of levees in the USA is more than 30,000 miles. As development continues to extend into flood- plainsalongriversandcoastalareas,anestimated$80billionisneededinthenext 10 years to maintain and improve the nation’s system of levees. There exist more than90,000damsinthecountrywithanaverageageof56years.Withanincrease in population and thus development, the overall number of high-hazard potential dams has increased—with the number climbing to nearly 15,500 in 2016. It is estimated that it will require an investment of nearly $45 billion to repair aging, high-hazard potential dams. Geophysical methods are indispensable to characterize the near-surface forma- tionpriortoplanninganddesignofdamsandlevees,andmonitoringtheirstructural integrity during their lifetime. This volume is devoted to case studies for investi- gationofseepageriskandmonitoringstructuralsafetyofdamsandlevees.Inrecent years, various types of fiber-optic sensors have enabled accurate and efficient structural monitoring in civil and geotechnical engineering. The fiber-optic tech- nology is especially suitable for monitoring large or elongated structures, such as dams, dikes, levees, bridges, and pipelines. The first chapter in this volume, entitled “Statistical Estimation of Soil Parameters in from Cross-Plots of S-Wave Velocity and Resistivity Obtained by Integrated Geophysical Method” by Hayashi et al., describes the application of an integratedgeophysicalandgeotechnicalboreholedataanalysistoderivecross-plots ofS-wavevelocityandresistivityandvariousgeotechnicalparametersforJapanese levees.Cumulativelengthofthegeophysicalsurveylinetraversesisnearly670km on 40 rivers in Japan. The geotechnical borehole data were collected from about 400 boreholes located along the geophysical survey line traverses. The second chapter in this volume, entitled “Application of Seismic Refraction andElectricalResistivityCross-PlotAnalysis:ACaseStudyatFrancisLeveeSite” by Wodajo et al., describes a case study to assess the integrity of earthen embankment at the site affected by sand boil formations during the 2011 Mississippi River flood event. Results from seismic refraction and electrical resistivity surveys conducted at the Francis Levee site indicate seven distinct anomalies that might be associated with seepage. Specifically, using the seismic velocity and electrical resistivity values of the anomalies on the waterside as lim- iting values, a cross-plot analysis was performed to identify similar anomalies on thelandside.Theresultsindicatethatpreferentialflowoccurswithinthesandlayer in an old oxbow. The third chapter in this volume, entitled “A Borehole Seismic Reflection Survey in Support of Seepage Surveillance at the Abutment of a Large Embankment Dam” by Butler et al., describes installation of a modern monitor- ing instrumentation at the Mactaquac Generating Station, a 660-MW hydroelectric facility located on the Saint John River—approximately 20 km upriver from Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada. The objective of this study was to confirm the location of the steeply inclined interface between an embankment dam and a concrete diversion sluiceway as accurately as possible for installing seepage Introduction vii monitoring instrumentation. Specifically, installation of a fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing (DTS) cable as close as possible to the sub-vertical contact between the concrete diversion sluiceway and the clay till the core of the adjacent zoned embankment dam required an accurate knowledge of the dam’s internal structure.Becauseoflackofdetailedas-builtdrawings,aseismicreflectionsurvey was conducted along a sub-parallel borehole, offset by approximately 1 m at the surface and by an estimated 4 m at the dam’s foundation at a depth of 50 m. A wall-locking seismic tool with eight receivers was used in two different orien- tationstocaptureP-andS-wavereflectionsfromtheconcrete–clayinterface.Based on the S-wave image, which helped delineate the concrete–clay interface, two 50-m-long boreholes for seepage monitoring instrumentation was installed within an estimated 50 cm of the interface. Thefourthchapterinthisvolume,entitled“Self-potentialImagingofSeepagein an Embankment Dam” by Bouchedda et al., describes a case study to investigate seepage in Les Cèdres embankment dam in Valleyfield, Canada, by integrating self-potential tomography (SPT), electrical resistance tomography (ERT), ther- mometry, electromagnetic (EM) conductivity, and magnetic measurements. SPT consists of inverting self-potential data to retrieve the source-current density dis- tribution associated with water flow pathways in embankment dams. The embankment dam is used to channel water from the Saint Lawrence River to a hydroelectric plant. The SPT inversion utilizes the resistivity model of the dam, which is obtained by ERT. EM conductivity maps allowed identifying two linear anomalies caused by metal-shielded electrical cables. The magnetic survey shows an important anomaly zone that is probably related to a metallic object. The SPT showsafewseepagelocationsontheupstreamdamsideatadepthintervalof4–5m. Two of these seepages were confirmed by geotechnical testing. All observable seepageoutletsonthedownstreamsidecanberelatedtotheSPTanomaliesandare observed as conductive zones in the resistivity model. The fifth chapter in this volume, entitled “Optical Fiber Sensors for Dam and Levee Monitoring and Damage Detection” by Inaudi, describes the use of optical fiber sensors for monitoring dams and levees to detect damaged locations. Case studiesforthesurveyswithvarioustypesofopticalfibersensorsinclude(1)awater reservoirinSpainwithplasticmembranetodetectleaksthroughthemembraneand theperimeterlevee;(2)NamGumrockfilldaminLaoswithconcretefacewhereto detect leaks through the concrete plinth; (3) Luzzone concrete arch dam in Switzerland to monitor temperature evolution during concrete setting; (4) some leveesinLouisianatomonitormovementsbetweenwallpanelstodetectanomalies andimpendingpanelfailure;(5)anearthenleveeintheNetherlandstodetectearly signs of levee failure; (6) a river dam in Latvia with a hydropower plant to detect leaks across bitumen joints; (7) sinkholes affecting rail and road structures in Kansas to detect impending sinkhole formation; (8) embankment dam with clay coreinSpaintomonitordeformationoftheclaycore;(9)ValdelaMarereservoir in Jersey Island with mass concrete dam wall to monitor deformations induced by alkalisilicareactioninconcrete;and(10)ElMaurominingtailingdaminChileto monitor long-term deformations and pore pressure. viii Introduction The sixth chapter in this volume, entitled “Application of the Helicopter Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Method for Levee Characterization” by Smiarowski et al., presents two case studies using a HEM system for levee char- acterizationandhazarddetectionatRetamalLevy,RioGrandeValleyinTexasand the flood-control levees of Sacramento Valley in California. Airborne remote sensing systems, such as HEM, can be deployed to survey large areas required by levee characterization. The HEM involves towing an electromagnetic transmitter and receiver that measure signals proportional to the electrical conductivity of the ground.TheHEMprovideselectricalconductivityinformationabouttheearthfrom aboutthetop1to100mbelowsurface.Dataaretypicallytransformedtoapparent conductivity, which removes variations in system altitude and allows easier inter- pretation of ground material. For levee characterization, the HEM-derived con- ductivity mapped in 3D gives an indication of the geometry of sand channels and claylayers.Inoneofthecasestudiespresented,theHEMdataenableddetectionof sandy channels and delineation of their spatial extent, including old oxbows and buried river channels that provide seepage pathways under the levee, which may cause sand boils or levee collapse from foundation erosion. In the second case study, high-resistivity values from the HEM data indicated dry, sandy conditions, andledtothediscoveryofsignificantcrackingintheleveeduetodesiccationofthe levee material. Given the fact that levees and dams serve indispensable functions, including irrigation, water supply, flood control, electric generation, and recreation, safe operationandmaintenanceofdamsandleveesarecrucialforbothsustainingthese functionsandavoidingpotentialdisasterandlossoflife.Thepapersincludedinthis volume demonstrate the successful application of geophysical methods to monitor the structural safety of levees and dams. Urla Öz Yilmaz May 2019 Contents Statistical Estimation of Soil Parameters in from Cross-Plots of S-Wave Velocity and Resistivity Obtained by Integrated Geophysical Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Koichi Hayashi, Tomio Inazaki, Kaoru Kitao and Takaho Kita Application of Seismic Refraction and Electrical Resistivity Cross-Plot Analysis: A Case Study at Francis Levee Site. . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Leti T. Wodajo, Craig J. Hickey and Thomas C. Brackett A Borehole Seismic Reflection Survey in Support of Seepage Surveillance at the Abutment of a Large Embankment Dam. . . . . . . . . 41 Karl E. Butler, D. Bruce McLean, Calin Cosma and Nicoleta Enescu Self-potential Imaging of Seepage in an Embankment Dam. . . . . . . . . . 69 A. Bouchedda, M. Chouteau, A. Coté, S. Kaveh and P. Rivard Optical Fiber Sensors for Dam and Levee Monitoring and Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Daniele Inaudi Application of the Helicopter Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Method for Levee Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Adam Smiarowski, Greg Hodges and Joe Dunbar ix Statistical Estimation of Soil Parameters in from Cross-Plots of S-Wave Velocity and Resistivity Obtained by Integrated Geophysical Method KoichiHayashi,TomioInazaki,KaoruKitaoandTakahoKita Abstract Cross-plots of S-wave velocity and resistivity obtained by geophysical methodsstatisticallyestimatedgeotechnicalsoilparameters,Fc,D20,blowcounts, and the soil types, of levee body and foundation for Japanese levees. The S-wave velocityandtheresistivitywerecollectedfromsurfacewavemethodsandresistivity methodsrespectively.Totalsurveylinelengthofthegeophysicalmethodswasabout 670 kmon40rivers inJapan. TheFc,D20,blowcounts, and soiltypes werecol- lectedfromabout400boringlogscarriedoutongeophysicalsurveylines.S-wave velocity and resistivity at the depth of the blow counts were extracted from two- dimensionalgeophysicalsections.Thetotalnumberofextracteddata,blowcounts andsoiltype,wasabout4000.Thedatawasgroupedbyleveebodyandfoundation. A polynomial approximation estimated the soil parameters from S-wave velocity and resistivity. A least squares method optimized the coefficients of the equation. Accuracyoftheestimationwasstatisticallyevaluatedbycomparingestimatedand actual soil parameters. The correlation coefficients between estimated and actual parametersrangedbetween0.43and0.8.Thepolynomialapproximationswiththe optimizedcoefficientscalculatedsoilparametersectionsfromS-wavevelocityand resistivitysections. B K.Hayashi( ) OYOCorporation,SanJose,USA e-mail:[email protected] Geometrics,Inc.,SanJose,USA T.Inazaki PWRITsukubaCentralInstitute,Tsukuba,Japan K.Kitao CubeWorks,Tsukuba,Japan T.Kita TKOcean-LandInvestigations,Nishinomiya,Japan ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2019 1 J.LorenzoandW.Doll(eds.),LeveesandDams, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27367-5_1