Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research Sangeeta M. Sonak Khazan Ecosystems of Goa Building on Indigenous Solutions to Cope with Global Environmental Change Khazan Ecosystems of Goa Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research Series Editor Prof. Marcus Nüsser South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg, Germany Editorial Board Prof. Eckart Ehlers, University of Bonn, Germany Prof. Harjit Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Prof. Hermann Kreutzmann, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Prof. Ken Hewitt, Waterloo University, Canada Prof. Urs Wiesmann, University of Bern, Switzerland Prof. Sarah J. Halvorson, University of Montana, USA Dr. Daanish Mustafa, King’s College London, UK Aims and Scope The series aims at fostering the discussion on the complex relationships between physical landscapes, natural resources, and their modifi cation by human land use in various environments of Asia. It is widely acknowledged that human-environment- interactions become increasingly important in area studies and development research, taking into account regional differences as well as bio-physical, socio- economic and cultural particularities. The book series seeks to explore theoretic and conceptual refl ection on dynamic human-environment systems applying advanced methodology and innovative research perspectives. The main themes of the series cover urban and rural landscapes in Asia. Examples include topics such as land and forest degradation, glaciers in Asia, mountain environments, dams in Asia, medical geography, vulnerability and mitigation strategies, natural hazards and risk management concepts, environmental change, impacts studies and consequences for local communities. The relevant themes of the series are mainly focused on geographical research perspectives of area studies, however there is scope for interdisciplinary contributions. For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8560 Sangeeta M. Sonak Khazan Ecosystems of Goa Building on Indigenous Solutions to Cope with Global Environmental Change Sangeeta M. Sonak Centre for Environment and Natural Resource Management, Srujan Panaji , Goa , India ISSN 1879-7180 ISSN 1879-7199 (electronic) ISBN 978-94-007-7201-4 ISBN 978-94-007-7202-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-7202-1 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London Library of Congress Control Number: 2013948750 © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014 This work is subject to copyright. 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Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Cover image: Nomads near Nanga Parbat, 1995. Copyright © Marcus Nüsser (used with permission) Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Pref ace Khazans are predominantly rice and fi sh fi elds. They are reclaimed wetlands, salt marshes and mangrove areas, where tidal infl uence is regulated by the construction of embankments and sluice gates. The k hazan ecosystem is a human made ecosys- tem, developed by traditional, primitive, tribal communities of Goa through a highly structured system of dykes, canals, furrows and sluice gates from resources that were amply available locally. The k hazan engineering system has a very simple architectural design, which is self-operating using tidal, hydro and solar energy, and is one that integrates highly complex, eco-friendly agriculture–aquaculture–salt panning functions, having been functional for the last more than 3,500 years. As a child, I was always more interested in k hazan fi sh than in k hazan history. We relished different fi sh delicacies prepared by my mother as my father brought home ‘ manoxeche nuste ’ (fi sh from sluice). Even after my marriage, my interest in ‘ manos ’ grew, as I started buying fi sh from local fi sherwomen selling fi sh in the local fi sh market. I was fascinated watching them hail out to the potential customers with constant calls, ‘B ay, manoxeche nuste var go ’ (‘Oh lady, please buy fi sh from sluice’) or ‘B ori manoxechi sungata ayalyat mago ’ (‘Good quality prawns from sluice are being sold in the market’). Often they would prescribe some fi sh recipes while buying fi sh, such as ‘ Bay, tora ghalun bes bori sungatachi kodi kar go ’ (‘Prepare tasty prawn curry with raw mango’). While I was working for The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) in the late 1990s, the then Tata Energy Research Institute, I came across some information cited from a report submitted by Dr Nandkumar Kamat on k hazans , a consultant for TERI. Around the same time, Dr Ligia Noronha, the then Head and In-Charge of TERI’s Western Regional Centre in Goa, entrusted me with studies on aquaculture for a European Commission project titled ‘Interactions between environment, soci- ety and technology’ (INTEREST). I opted for traditional aquaculture systems in Goa, khazans . Thus, my journey with khazan ecology began in the late 1990s. I continued my work with khazans for 5 years in TERI with another project, ‘Role of institutions in global environmental change’, funded by the Asia Pacifi c Network (APN), Japan. However, during these years, work was restricted to k hazans of v vi Preface Divar. I had to break this journey while I worked and coordinated other research projects in TERI, such as ‘Assessing impacts of tributyltin on multiple coastal uses’, or ‘TBTimpacts’, funded by the European Commission. Later, as I moved to the Centre for Environment and Natural Resource Management, Srujan, I worked on a larger project titled ‘Seas and shores around us’. My obvious choice was khazan ecosystems. This stint generated an emotional bond and intimate association with khazans . Human migrations in Goa, arrival of G aud Saraswat Brahmins (GSBs), various legends on Goa, history of k hazans , indigenous resource management insti- tutions and their metamorphosis into formal institutions, the g aunkari system, names of places and persons, cultures and traditions involving ecological knowl- edge, the Portuguese colonial regime in Goa …, there seemed to be no end to k ha- zan links with Goa. Everything in Goa and in the life of Goans appeared to be connected with k hazans . Till date, the staple diet of Goans, that is fi sh curry and rice, is obtained from khazans . The rising sun of each day reminds market-going Goans of khazans , and as the sun sets over the Arabian Sea, the day of most Goans generally ends with ‘a gorache niste ’ (fi sh from k hazan aquaculture farm). Goans perceive k hazans as dear to them as salt. Primitive communities of Goa might have developed k hazans to provide them abundantly with their daily needs of food. Particularly for the G aud Saraswat Brahmins (GSBs), who had faced famine on the banks of the now extinct River Saraswati, Goa provided a rich haven with her replete natural resources. G auda settlements in hilly areas helped them with their ecological knowledge. Khazans were developed in such an environment that was highly conducive to aquaculture, by people who had migrated from adverse environmental conditions. Human migra- tion in Goa dates back to the Palaeolithic era. Migration of coastal settlers on the central and southwest coast of India perhaps has Harappan affi liation. Ancient civi- lizations generally fl ourished along the banks of fertile river valleys. Primitive coastal settlers of Goa converted saline estuarine plains, then regarded as waste- lands, into a rich medley of green, blue and white with integrated knits of agricul- ture, aquaculture and salt pans. Indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) embedded in the construct of k hazans is evident. Much can be learnt from IEK entrenched in khazans . Khazan experiments successfully conducted by the traditional communi- ties of Goa can be replicated in other parts of the world as adaptation mechanisms to cope with the global environmental change (GEC). Khazan lands of Goa that fascinated primitive settlers of Goa also appealed to the local Goan artists and writers. ‘S amudratali chandi ’ (‘silver from the sea’, referring to fi sh from the sea) and ‘b imalan ros ’ with ‘ manoxechi sungata ’ fascinated a renowned Goan poet, B. B. Borkar. To this day, harvests from khazans entice the Goan as well as the fl oating tourist population. K hazans are intricately associated with Goan life till date. Unfortunately, there is a degradation of these unique and ancient heritage ecosystems as certain groups fi nd profi ts in the conversion of such systems for building and non-agricultural purposes. Such groups often seem to forget that conservation of k hazan ecosystems is conservation of local culture and global biodiversity. K hazan ecosystems qualify as world historical or world heritage sites, and these endemic and heritage ecosystems deserve conservation not just as Preface vii gifts from our forefathers but as debts from our children. To quote John James Audubon’s words, ‘A true conservationist is a man who knows that the world is not given by his fathers, but borrowed from his children’. My interest in the ecological history of k hazans only grew as I continued reading bits and pieces of literature written by Goan authors, in local languages as well as in English. Therefore, when I was invited to write a book by Springer Verlag, I put forward a proposal on k hazans , which, realizing the importance of the subject, Springer was pleased to accept. For this, I am truly grateful to Dr Robert Doe, Senior Publisher, and Naomi Portnoy, Project Coordinator, at Springer Netherlands. The publication of this book shall assist me and, consequently, the khazan ecosys- tems to reach a wide national and international audience. We are hopeful that this, in turn, will greatly assist the case of conservation of these ecosystems at this crucial juncture when short-term gains towards modern technological advances tend to run down the heritage and wisdom of indigenous traditional knowledge. I am constantly reminded of late Dr Elinor Ostrom who encouraged me to write on khazans . I am, indebted to her for her support. I am also grateful to all those, particularly many khazan farmers and fi shers of Goa, who richly contributed to my knowledge base on khazans . The last few months, I lived in the world of k hazans . My entire family, too, often visited my world of khazans , offering their time, intellect and enthusiasm in the form of insights, suggestions, information, critique, feedback, etc. The contribu- tion of my husband, Mahesh, to my world of k hazans is great. K hazans of Goa assumed a better shape with his support and comments. My 11-year-old son, Eeshan, always ready to help me with my fi eldwork, had to endure much inconvenience. My parents provided valuable information on the importance and use of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge in Goan rituals and festivals. My mother-in-law read my drafts with great interest and offered advice. My sister-in-law, Sushama, provided a book on Vengurla with some bits of information, which are included in the cultural aspects of k hazans . My friends Savita Kerkar, Janet Rubinoff and Nandkumar Kamat helped in enriching the book by providing me access to their research papers on k hazans . Lastly, my list of acknowledgements cannot be complete without thank- ing Mr. Janmejay Kandolkar (Jalmi), who drove me around during my fi eld trips and offered assistance in my fi eldwork. With gratitude to all those who contributed to Khazans of Goa , I present to the readers the world of k hazans . Goa, India Sangeeta M. Sonak Contents 1 Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and Global Environmental Change ............................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 IEK and Its Evolution ......................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Indicators Used by Traditional Communities ...................... 5 1.2.2 Evolution of IEK .................................................................. 5 1.2.3 Transfer of IEK .................................................................... 6 1.3 Global Environmental Change ........................................................... 6 1.3.1 Role of IEK in Coping with GEC ........................................ 7 1.3.2 Issues Related to IEK ........................................................... 7 References ................................................................................................... 13 2 An Introduction to Goa and K hazan Ecosystems ................................... 15 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 15 2.1.1 Physiography ........................................................................ 16 2.1.2 Geology ................................................................................ 16 2.1.3 Soils of Goa .......................................................................... 17 2.1.4 Hydrography ........................................................................ 18 2.1.5 Climate ................................................................................. 18 2.1.6 Biodiversity .......................................................................... 19 2.1.7 Coast ..................................................................................... 19 2.1.8 Various Dynasties That Ruled Goa ...................................... 20 2.1.9 Institutional Framework in India .......................................... 21 2.1.10 Demography ......................................................................... 23 2.1.11 Economic Activities ............................................................. 23 2.2 History of Human Migration and Beginning of Agriculture in Goa ......................................................................... 26 References ................................................................................................... 30 ix