Introduction What Are the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament? KEY POINTS • Hebrew Bible: Law, Prophets, Writings (Torah, Nebiim, Divided kingdom: Ketibim = TANAK). —Israel (northern kingdom) survived 200 years; • Protestant Old Testament: same books, different order —Judah (southern kingdom) survived 335 years. • Catholic Old Testament: includes deuterocanonical or Babylonian exile. apocryphal books. The Postexilic or Second Temple period. • Septuagint (LXX): Greek Bible. • Modern chronology: • Vulgate: Latin Bible, translated by Jerome. 1250 B.C.E: Exodus • Gradual development of canon. 950: Solomon • Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered 1947–1956: oldest biblical 722: Destruction of northern kingdom manuscripts. 586: Destruction of Jerusalem. Babylonian exile • Biblical chronology: 539: Restoration Adam to the flood: 1,656 years, 10 generations (Genesis 5). • Methods in Biblical Study: The flood to Abraham: 290 years, 10 generations (Genesis 11). Source criticism Abraham to the descent of Jacob and his family to Egypt: 290 Form criticism years, 3 generations (Genesis 12–50). Redaction criticism The sojourn in Egypt: 430 years, 3 generations (Exodus 12:40). Archaeology The conquest of Canaan: 5 years. Literary criticism The Judges: 470 years. Sociological approaches David and Solomon. he writings that make up the Hebrew literary classics are not. The idea of sacred TBible or the Christian Old Testa- Scripture, however, is by no means a clear one, ment are by any reckoning among and it means very different things to different the most influential writings in Western his- people. Some conservative Christians regard tory. In part, their influence may be ascribed the Bible as the inspired word of God, ver- to their literary quality, but mainly it derives bally inerrant in all its details. At the liberal from the fact that they are regarded as sacred end of the spectrum, others regard it only as a scripture by Jews and Christians and are witness to the foundational stages of Western viewed as authoritative in a way that other religion. 1 2 INTRODUCTION The Different Canons and the Minor Prophets as twelve, yield- of Scripture ing a total of thirty-nine books. The Former Prophets are regarded as historical books and The Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament are grouped with Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. not quite the same thing. Daniel is counted as a prophetic book. The The Hebrew Bible is a collection of twenty- (Latter) Prophets are moved to the end of the four books in three divisions: the Law (Tōrāh), collection, so as to point forward to the New the Prophets (Nebî’îm), and the Writings Testament. (Ketûbîm), sometimes referred to by the acro- The Roman Catholic canon contains several nym Tanak. books that are not in the Hebrew Bible or the The Torah consists of five books: Genesis, Protestant Old Testament: Tobit, Judith, Wis- Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteron- dom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (or the Wis- omy (traditionally, the books of Moses). dom of Jesus, son of Sirach = Ben Sira), Baruch, The Prophets are divided into the four Letter of Jeremiah (= Baruch 6), 1 and 2 Mac- books of the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, cabees. Furthermore, the books of Daniel and Samuel, and Kings; 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and Esther contain passages that are not found in 2 Kings are each counted as one book) and the the Hebrew Bible. In the case of Daniel, these four of the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, are the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Ezekiel, and the Twelve; the twelve Minor Three Young Men, which are inserted in Dan- Prophets [Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, iel 3, and the stories of Susanna and Bel and Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Hag- the Dragon. gai, Zechariah, Malachi] are counted as one The additional books are called Apoc- book). rypha (literally, “hidden away”) in Protestant The Writings consist of eleven books: terminology. Catholics often refer to them as Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs (or Can- “deuterocanonical” or “secondarily canonical” ticles), Ruth, Lamentations, Qoheleth (or books, in recognition of the fact that they are Ecclesiastes), Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah not found in the Hebrew Bible. (as one book), and Chronicles (1 and 2 Chron- icles as one book). Why Are There Different Canons The Christian Old Testament is so called of Scripture? in contrast to the New Testament, with the implication that the Old Testament is in some The Hebrew Bible took shape over several hun- sense superseded by the New. There are signifi- dred years and attained its final form only in cant differences, however, within the Christian the first century C.E. churches as to the books that make up the Old The Torah may have been substantially Testament. complete in the fifth century B.C.E., but there The Protestant Old Testament has the same were still some additions or modifications later content as the Hebrew Bible but arranges the than that. books differently. The first five books are the The Prophets formed a recognized category same but are called the Pentateuch rather than in the second century B.C.E. We find references the Torah. Samuel, Kings, Ezra-Nehemiah, to the Torah and the Prophets in the second and Chronicles are each counted as two books, century B.C.E. in the book of Ben Sira (Eccle- INTRODUCTION 3 siasticus) and again in the Dead Sea Scrolls (in the Greek Scriptures that were taken over by a document known as 4QMMT). The book of the early Christians but had been current in Daniel, which was composed about 164 B.C.E., Jewish communities outside Israel, especially is not included in the Prophets in the Hebrew in Alexandria in Egypt. According to legend, Bible, and this may indicate that the collection the Torah had been translated into Greek at of the Prophets was already fixed. the request of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, king The Writings: The preface to the book of of Egypt, in the first half of the third century Ben Sira also mentions other writings that B.C.E., by seventy-two elders. The transla- were regarded as authoritative, but there was tion became known as the Septuagint or LXX no definitive list of these before the first cen- (“Septuagint” means “seventy”). The name was tury C.E. Most references to the Jewish Scrip- eventually extended to cover the whole collec- tures in the writings of this period (including tion of Greek Scriptures. This larger collection references in the New Testament) speak only included translations of some books that were of “the Law and the Prophets.” The Psalms are written in Hebrew (e.g., the book of Ben Sira, sometimes added as a third category. The first 1 Maccabees) and also some books that were references to a fixed number of authoritative composed in Greek (2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Hebrew writings are found toward the end of Solomon). The Jews of Alexandria did not set a the first century C.E. The Jewish historian Jose- limit to the number of the sacred writings. The phus gives the number as twenty-two, while Jewish community in Alexandria was virtu- the Jewish apocalypse of 4 Ezra (= 2 Esdras ally wiped out in the early second century C.E. 3–14) speaks of twenty-four. It is possible Christians who took over the Greek Scriptures that both had the same books in mind but of the Jews inherited a larger and more fluid that Josephus combined some books (Judges- collection than the Hebrew Bible. There is still Ruth and Jeremiah-Lamentations) that were considerable variation among the lists of Old counted separately in 4 Ezra. Testament books cited by the church fathers The fixing of the Hebrew canon is often centuries later. associated with the so-called Council of Jam- When Jerome translated the Bible into nia, the discussions of an authoritative group Latin about 400 C.E., he based his transla- of rabbis after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. It tion on the Hebrew. He also translated the is misleading, however, to speak of a “Council” books that were not found in the Hebrew but of Jamnia, since it suggests a meeting like the accorded them lesser status. His translation, ecumenical councils of the Christian church. known as the Vulgate, was very influential, but The rabbis debated the status of some books nonetheless the Christian church continued to (Qoheleth and Song of Songs), but there is no accept the larger Greek canon down through evidence that they proclaimed a formal list of the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reforma- Scriptures. Nonetheless, it is at this time (70– tion, Martin Luther advocated a return to the 100 C.E.) that we first find references to a fixed Hebrew canon, although he also translated the number of authoritative books. Apocrypha. In reaction to Luther, the Roman The books that were included in the Catholic Church defined its larger canon at the Hebrew Bible were only a small selection Council of Trent in the mid-sixteenth century. from the religious writings that were current It should be apparent from this discus- in Judaism. A larger selection was preserved in sion that the list of books that make up the 4 INTRODUCTION Canons of the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament Hebrew Bible Protestant Old Testament Torah Pentateuch Prophets Genesis Genesis Isaiah Exodus Exodus Jeremiah Leviticus Leviticus Lamentations Numbers Numbers Ezekiel Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Daniel Hosea Prophets (Former) Historical Books Joel Joshua Joshua Amos Judges Judges Obadiah Samuel (1 and 2) Ruth Jonah Kings (1 and 2) 1 Samuel Micah 2 Samuel Nahum Prophets (Latter) 1 Kings Habakkuk Isaiah 2 Kings Zephaniah Jeremiah 1 Chronicles Haggai Ezekiel 2 Chronicles Zechariah Minor Prophets Ezra Malachi (“The Twelve”): Nehemiah Hosea, Joel, Amos, Esther Apocrypha Obadiah, Jonah, 1 Esdras Micah, Nahum, Poetry/Wisdom 2 Esdras Habakkuk, Job Tobit Zephaniah, Haggai, Psalms Judith Zechariah, Proverbs Additions to Esther Malachi Ecclesiastes Wisdom of Solomon (Qoheleth) Ecclesiasticus Writings Song of Solomon (Wisdom of Sirach) Psalms (Songs) Baruch Proverbs Letter of Jeremiah Job Prayer of Azariah Song of Songs and Song of the Ruth Three Young Men Lamentations Susanna Qoheleth Bel and the Dragon (Ecclesiastes) Prayer of Manasseh Esther 1 Maccabees Daniel 2 Maccabees Ezra-Nehemiah Chronicles (1 and 2) INTRODUCTION 5 Canons of the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament (cont.) Roman Catholic Old Testament Pentateuch Poetry/Wisdom Prophets Genesis Job Isaiah Exodus Psalms (Greek and Jeremiah Leviticus Russian Orthodox Lamentations Numbers Bibles include Baruch (includes Deuteronomy Psalm 151 and Prayer Letter of Jeremiah) of Manasseh) Ezekiel Historical Books Proverbs Daniel (with Joshua Ecclesiastes additions) Judges (Qoheleth) Hosea Ruth Song of Solomon Joel 1 Samuel (Songs) Amos 2 Samuel Wisdom of Solomon Obadiah 1 Kings Ecclesiasticus Jonah 2 Kings (Wisdom of Sirach) Micah 1 Chronicles Nahum 2 Chronicles Habakkuk Ezra (Greek and Zephaniah Russian Orthodox Haggai Bibles also include Zechariah 1 Esdras, and Russian Malachi Orthodox includes 2 Esdras) Nehemiah Tobit Judith Esther (with additions) 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees (Greek and Russian Orthodox Bibles include 3 Maccabees) 6 INTRODUCTION Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testa- from the third century B.C.E. Many of these ment emerged gradually over time. The vari- texts agree with the MT, but some differ and ous canons were eventually determined by the are closer to the Greek. decisions of religious communities. Christian There are fragments of Greek biblical theology has often drawn a sharp line between manuscripts from the second century B.C.E. Scripture and tradition, but in fact Scripture on. The oldest complete manuscripts date itself is a product of tradition. Its content and from the fourth century C.E. The Greek trans- shape are subject to the decisions of religious lations were generally very literal and reflected authorities. the Hebrew text closely. Nonetheless, in many cases they differed significantly from the MT. The books of Jeremiah and Job are much The Text of the Bible shorter in the Greek than in the Hebrew. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain Hebrew texts Modern English translations of the Bible are of Jeremiah that are very close to the Greek, based on the printed editions of the Hebrew although other copies agree with the MT. Bible and the principal ancient translations (especially Greek and Latin). These printed editions are themselves based on ancient man- uscripts. In the case of the Hebrew Bible, the most important manuscripts date from the tenth and eleventh centuries C.E., almost a thousand years after the canon of the Hebrew Bible was fixed. The text found in these manu- scripts is called the Masoretic text, or MT. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in caves near Qumran, south of Jericho, beginning in 1947, brought to light manuscripts of all biblical books, except Esther and Nehemiah, that are more than a thousand years older than these Fig. 0.1. A few lines of the Hebrew Bible (from Isaiah). Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Photo: © Erich Lessing / Art Resource. manuscripts. The oldest of these scrolls date The Dead Sea Scrolls In 1947, ancient Hebrew scrolls were found in a cave near the site of Qumran, on the shore of the Dead Sea, south of Jericho. These included a copy of the book of Isaiah that proved to be 1,000 years older than than the oldest extant Hebrew biblical manu- scripts. Over the next decade, many more scrolls came to light, fragments of more than 800 manuscripts in all. Some of these scrolls describe a quasi-monastic sectarian community that is thought to have lived on the site of Qumran. Some of the scrolls continues on next page INTRODUCTION 7 continues from previous page deal with matters of legal interpretation, on which the sect disagreed with the rest of Judaism. Some provide the earliest formal commentaries on biblical texts. Others speak of a coming war between Sons of Light and Sons of Darkness or refer to the expectation of messianic figures. These scrolls are important evidence for Judaism in the century or so before the rise of Christianity. They provide evidence of some Jewish trends that were taken up in Christianity and others that were developed in rabbinic Judaism. More than 200 manuscripts are fragments of biblical books. These are by far the oldest biblical manuscripts that we have. They include fragments of every book in the Hebrew Bible except Esther and Nehemiah. On the whole, the Dead Sea Scrolls show that the text now printed in our Hebrew Bibles (the Masoretic text) had taken shape be- fore the time of Jesus. But they also show some interesting variations. In some cases, Hebrew manuscripts found at Qumran agree with the Greek Bible (the Septuagint, LXX). For example, the Masoretic text says that 70 of Jacob’s descendants went with him to Egypt. The LXX and a text of Exodus found in Cave 4 at Qumran say 75. A more signifi- cant variation occurs at Deut 32:8, where the Masoretic text says that God divided the nations according to the number of the sons of Israel. Scholars had long suspected that the Greek, which reads either “angels of God” or “sons of God,” was correct. A manuscript from Qumran preserves the reading “sons of God.” In the story of David and Goliath, the Masoretic text gives Goliath’s height as six cubits and a span, or about nine feet nine inches. The Greek measures him at four cubits and a span (about six feet nine inches). A manuscript from Qumran supports the Greek. The Greek translation was made long before the scrolls containing the Masoretic text were copied, and it sometimes contains superior readings. The differences in some books are more far-reaching still. The Greek text of Jer- emiah is about one-eighth shorter than the Masoretic Hebrew. Both forms of the text are found in the scrolls. A scroll containing psalms from Qumran arranges the last part of the psalter in a different order from the Masoretic Bible and includes an extra psalm that is also found in the Greek. All of this provides a rare glimpse of the process by which the text of the Bible was formed. Few of the variations involve matters of major importance, but they teach us to be wary of any claims based on the literal words of the Bible. Often these words exist in more than one form. 8 INTRODUCTION Chronology Approximate dates implied in Bible for early history 4000 B.C.E. Creation 2400 Flood 2100 Abraham 1875 Descent into Egypt 1445 Exodus 1000 David The Bible and History It now seems likely that the differences between the Greek and the Hebrew texts were not due to the translators but reflect the fact The Bible is a product of history. It took shape that the Greek was based on a shorter Hebrew over time, and its content and even its wording text. This is also true in 1 Samuel 16–18 and in changed in the process. a number of other cases. There were different The Bible is also immersed in history in forms of the Hebrew text in circulation in the another way. Much of it tells the story about third, second, and first centuries B.C.E. In some the people Israel that has at least the appear- cases, the Greek may preserve an older form ance of a historical narrative. For most of Jew- of the text than the Hebrew. For example, ish and Christian history there has been an the shorter form of Jeremiah is likely to be uncritical assumption that this story is histori- older than the form preserved in the Hebrew cally true. In the last 200 years, however, other Bible. information about the ancient world has come In light of this, it makes little sense to to light, through archaeological exploration speak of verbal inerrancy in connection with and through the recovery of ancient literature. the biblical text. In many cases we cannot be This information is often at variance with the sure what the exact words of the Bible should account given in the Bible. be. This is not to say that the wording of the Biblical Chronology Bible is unreliable. The Dead Sea Scrolls have shown that there is, on the whole, an amaz- The following outline of history emerges from ing degree of continuity in the way the text has data in the biblical text: been copied over thousands of years. But even a casual comparison of a few current English Adam to the flood: 1,656 years, 10 genera- Bibles should make clear that there are many tions (Genesis 5) areas of uncertainty in the biblical text. We The flood to Abraham, 290 years, 10 genera- do not have a perfect copy of the original text. tions (Genesis 11) We only have copies made centuries after the Abraham to the descent of Jacob and his books were originally composed, and these family to Egypt: 290 years, 3 generations copies often differ among themselves. (Genesis 12–50) INTRODUCTION 9 The sojourn in Egypt: 430 years, 3 generations The seventeenth-century Irish Anglican (Exod 12:40) bishop James Ussher famously calculated the The conquest of Canaan: 5 years date of creation as 4004 B.C.E. The Judges: 470 years Modern scholarship has generally ac- Transition period under Saul and David cepted the biblical chronology of the period According to 1 Kgs 6:1, Solomon began to build of the monarchy, since it can be correlated the temple in Jerusalem 480 years after the with nonbiblical sources at several points. exodus. This figure is incompatible with the The dates for the exodus and the patriarchs, number of years assigned to the Judges. however, are viewed with great skepticism. In the generation after Solomon, the kingdom The life spans of the patriarchs are unrealis- was divided in two: tic, ranging from 110 to 175 years. The 430 Israel (the northern kingdom) survived 200 years in Egypt are supposed to cover only years. three generations. Most scholars place the Judah (the southern kingdom) survived 335 exodus about 1250 B.C.E., but many now years. question whether we can claim any historical Then came the Babylonian exile, followed by knowledge about the patriarchs or even the the postexilic or Second Temple period. exodus. Both the biblical record and modern The destructions of northern Israel and its scholarship place the emergence of Israel as a capital, Samaria, and of Judah and its capital, people in the second half of the second mil- Jerusalem, allow us to correlate the history of lennium B.C.E. Modern reconstructions favor Israel with the general history of the Near East, the last quarter of that millennium, roughly since these events are also recorded in Assyrian 1250–1000 B.C.E. The biblical dates put it and Babylonian records. From these records we about two centuries earlier. get the following dates: One implication of this chronological survey is that Israel was a late arrival on the 722 B.C.E.: The fall of Samaria stage of Near Eastern history. The great civi- 597 B.C.E.: First capture of Jerusalem by the lizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia had Babylonians already flourished for a millennium and a half 586 B.C.E.: Second capture of Jerusalem, the before the tribes of Israel appeared on the destruction of the temple, and the begin- scene. ning of the Babylonian exile. A second implication is that there is a gap of several centuries between the date when If we work back from the dates of the destruc- the biblical books were written and the events tions and add up the years of the kings of Israel that they claim to describe. Traditionally, and Judah, we arrive at the following dates: the books of the Torah were supposed to be works of Moses, but it has long been clear that About 950 B.C.E.: Solomon Moses could not have been their author. It now About 1450 B.C.E.: The exodus seems clear that the entire Hebrew Bible About 1876 B.C.E.: The descent of Jacob and received its final shape in the postexilic, or his family into Egypt Second Temple period, long after the events it About 2100 B.C.E.: Abraham describes. 10 INTRODUCTION Modern Chronology The historical value of the stories of the patriarchs is uncertain. Modern scholars have often proposed a date of 1800 B.C.E. for Abraham. 1250 B.C.E. (approx.) Exodus from Egypt (disputed). 1250–1000 Emergence of Israel in the highlands of Canaan. 1000–960 (approx.) King David. Beginning of monarchy in Jerusalem (disputed). 960–922 (approx.) King Solomon. Building of Jerusalem temple (disputed). 922 Division of kingdom: Israel in the north, Judah in the south. 722/721 Destruction of Samaria, capital of Israel, by the Assyrians. End of kingdom of Israel. 621 Reform of Jerusalem cult by King Josiah. Promulgation of “the book of the law” (some form of Deuteronomy). 597 Capture of Jerusalem by Babylonians. Deportation of king and nobles to Babylon. 586 Destruction of Jerusalem by Babylonians. More extensive deportations. Beginning of Babylonian exile. 539 Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus of Persia. Jewish exiles allowed to return to Jerusalem. End of exile. Judah becomes a province of Persia. 520–515 Rebuilding of Jerusalem Temple. 458 Ezra sent from Babylon to Jerusalem with a copy of the Law. 336–323 Alexander the Great conquers the Persian Empire. 312–198 Judea controlled by the Ptolemies of Egypt (a Greek dynasty, founded by one of Alexander's generals). 198 Jerusalem conquered by the Seleucids of Syria (also a Greek dynasty). 168/167 Persecution of Jews in Jerusalem by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, king of Syria. Maccabean revolt. 63 Conquest of Jerusalem by Roman general Pompey. 66–70 C.E. First Jewish revolt against Rome. Destruction of Jerusalem Temple. 132–135 C.E. Second Jewish revolt under Bar Kochba. Jerusalem rebuilt as Aelia Capitolina, with a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus.