Interest Groups Volume 4 Number 1 March 2015 & Advocacy I n t Special Issue: Learning to Lobby e r e s Contents t G r o Volume 4 Number 1 March 2015 www.palgrave-journals.com/iga/ EDITORIAL u p s Learning to lobby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 & Conor McGrath A d v o I ORIGINAL ARTICLES c a c y Learnable skills, or unteachable instinct? What can and what cannot be taught in the lobbying profession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Thomas T. Holyoke, Heath Brown and Timothy M. LaPira The moving stages of public affairs in the Netherlands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 V A o Arco Timmermans lu G m e Teaching public policy advocacy by combining academic 4 N knowledge and professional wisdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 u m Patrick Griffin and James A. Thurber b e r 1 An academic program for public affairs in Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Julia Wippersberg, Nicole Wagner and Klaus Lojka The role of education in advancing the lobbying profession. . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Howard Marlowe Recruiting the competent lobbyist: Career options and employer demands in Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Marco Althaus Print ISSN: 2047-7414 Online ISSN: 2047-7422 Copyright © 2014 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Interest Groups & Advocacy www.palgrave-journals.com/iga/ Editors Jan Beyers, University of Antwerp, Belgium Darren Halpin, Australian National University, Australia Burdett Loomis, University of Kansas, USA Practice Editor Conor McGrath, Public Affairs Consultant, Ireland Reviews Editor Heath Brown, City University of New York, John Jay College, USA Editorial Board FrankBaumgartner,UniversityofNorthCarolina,USA HanspeterKriesi,UniversityofZurich,Switzerland AnneBinderkrantz,AarhusUniversity,Denmark BethL.Leech,RutgersUniversity,USA KatiTusinskiBerg,MarquetteUniversity,USA DavidLevi-Faur,HebrewUniversity,Israel HollyBrasher,UniversityofAlabama,Birmingham,USA DavidLowery,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,USA PaulBurstein,UniversityofWashington,USA ChristineMahoney,UniversityofVirginia,USA LauraChaques,UniversityofBarcelona,Spain WilliamMaloney,UniversityofNewcastle,UK ReginaChen,HongKongBaptistUniversity,HongKong DavidMiller,UniversityofBath,UK MarioDiani,ICREA-PompeuFabraUniversity,Barcelona DannyMoss,UniversityofChester,UK WilliamDinan,UniversityofWestScotland,UK AnthonyNownes,UniversityofTennessee,USA VirginiaGray,UniversityofNorthCarolina,USA YolandaSadie,UniversityofJohannesburg,SouthAfrica JustinGreenwood,RobertGordonUniversity,UK SabineSaurugger,IEPGrenoble,France MattGrossmann,MichiganState,USA DaraStrolovitch,UofMN-TwinCities,USA ThomasT.Holyoke,CaliforniaStateUniversity,Fresno,USA JohnWarhurst,ANU,Australia GrantJordan,AberdeenUniversity,UK CorneliaWoll,SciencesPoParis,France Practitioner Panel Gary Andres, Staff Director, House of Representatives CraigHolman,PublicCitizen,USA Energy&CommerceCommittee,USA PeterKo¨ppl,MastermindPublicAffairsConsulting, CharlesJDalldorf,GovernmentandMediaAffairs Vienna,Austria Consultant,Sacramento,CA,USA SheilaKrumholz,OpenSecrets.org,USA CraigS.Fleisher,AuroraWDC,USAA/Universita`della GillMorris,ConnectCommunications,UK Svizzeraitaliana,Switzerland DavidRehr,TransparaGovInc.,Washington, AdrianvandenHoven,BusinessEurope,Brussels USA JuliusHobson,PolsinelliShughart,Washington,USA StuartThomson,BirchamDysonBellLLP,UK AbouttheJournal InterestGroups&Advocacywillengagebroadlywiththepoliticsofinterests. Itwillrecordandanalyzehowadvocacy bygroups,movementsandlobbyingprofessionalsshapespolicy,anditwilladdressimportantdebatesabouthow suchinterestsaremobilizedandmaintained. Itwillcastawidenetacrosspoliticsandsocietytoidentifytheforces, strategies, and tactics that determine policy change. Open to diverse methodologies, it welcomes studies that addresstheoreticalissues,reportsrigorousempiricalwork,anddeliversinsightontherangeofchangeagents,and theirbehaviourandimpact. Submissions Forfulldetailsaboutsubmissionsandcompleteinstructionsforauthors,pleaseseethewebsite:http://www.palgrave- journals.com/IGA/index.html. General questions about submission or other journal matters can be sent to the Editors: InNorthAmerica: ProfessorBurdettA.Loomis, Department ofPoliticalScience,1541 LilacLane,Universityof Kansas,Lawrence,KS66044-3177,USA.Email:[email protected] InEurope:ProfessorJanBeyers,DepartmentofPoliticalScience,UniversiteitAntwerpen,SintJacobstraat2,BE2000 Antwerp,Belgium.Email:[email protected] InUK,Ireland&RestofWorld:ProfessorDarrenHalpin,ResearchSchoolofSocialSciences,AustralianNational University,Canberra0200,Australia.Email:[email protected] Interest Groups & Advocacy Volume4 Number1 March 2015 Contents Special Issue: Learning to Lobby EDITORIAL Learning to lobby 1 Conor McGrath ORIGINAL ARTICLES Learnable skills, or unteachable instinct? What can and what cannot be taught in the lobbying profession 7 Thomas T. Holyoke, Heath Brown and Timothy M. LaPira The moving stages of public affairs in the Netherlands 25 Arco Timmermans Teaching public policy advocacy by combining academic knowledge and professional wisdom 40 Patrick Griffin and James A. Thurber An academic program for public affairs in Austria 52 Julia Wippersberg, Nicole Wagner and Klaus Lojka The role of education in advancing the lobbying profession 65 Howard Marlowe Recruiting the competent lobbyist: Career options and employer demands in Germany 76 Marco Althaus Copyrightr2015MacmillanPublishersLtd. Thisissueisnowavailableat: www.palgrave-journals.com/iga/ Keep up-to-date with new research as it publishes Sign up for our free journal E-Alerts service to receive table of contents alerts when new issues publish online. It’s an easy way to stay informed of important work being done in your field. Editorial Learning to lobby InterestGroups&Advocacy(2015)4,1–6.doi:10.1057/iga.2014.22 We often hear – in scholarly work, in the mass media, and at practitioner conferences – of the ‘lobbying profession,’ but I argue (McGrath, 2005) that although lobbying is now a well-established occupation it still falls far short – everywhere – of having attained professional status. Jordan’s (1991) direct challenge could be asked with equal validity in any nation: ‘Lobbying in Britain may be increasingly professional in that more and more decision making rests on complicated arguments about non-obvious impacts of policies on particular clienteles.Butisitaprofession?’(p.41). Among the key elements of any profession are: a set of common values; membershipinstrongrepresentativeorganisations;adherencetoprofessionalnorms; anintellectualtraditionandbodyofknowledge;andtechnicalskillsacquiredthrough professionaltraining(GrunigandHunt,1984).Cuttingacrossseveralofthesefactors is the question of how lobbyists are educated and trained, in terms not only of the specific policy and process knowledge they need but also of the way in which they aresocializedintotheindustry’sstandardsandexpectations.Inaclassictext,Berry (1977,p.92)notedthat,‘Noonehasinterviewedthepeoplewhoactuallyhirestaff lobbyists or lobbyist entrepreneurs to ask them about what qualities they look for. It is entirely possible that employers have no clear idea either of what qualifies a person to be a lobbyist.’ We have some anecdotal insight into a number of the personal qualities and characteristics which an effective lobbyist appears to need (McGrath, 2006), but there is still very little systematic empirical evidence which might answer the question posed by Berry. Nor can we say with any certainty how best lobbyists or aspiring lobbyists can gain the skills, knowledge and qualities necessaryforsuccessfuladvocacy. These are issues which the older and more traditional professions have already wrestledwithandessentiallyresolved.Otherindustrieshavealsobeentakingstepsin the direction of professionalisation for some time. One closely related field, that of public relations, has been much more proactive in this area than has lobbying. The Public Relations Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, for instance, publishes an occasional monograph series on ‘Teaching Public Relations’ (www.aejmc.net/PR/teach.htm). The Global Alliance ©2015MacmillanPublishersLtd.2047-7414 InterestGroups&Advocacy Vol.4,1,1–6 www.palgrave-journals.com/iga/ Editorial for Public Relations and Communication Management hasbeen instrumental in the production of a number of reports on undergraduate and post-graduate curricula (Tench and Deflagbe, 2008; Toth and Aldoory, 2010; Commission on Public Relations Education, 2012), all of which build upon earlier studies (IPRA, 1982; CommissiononPublicRelationsEducation,2006). In addition, it is noticeable that other academic disciplines have engaged in muchmorevigorousdebatethanhasthefieldofinterestgroups/lobbyingoverthe content–anddesirability–ofagenerallyrecognisedcorecurriculum.Evenifwelook onlyatpoliticalscience,wecanfindsuchdiscussionsaroundEUstudies(Rumfordand Murray,2003;Umbachand Scholl,2003),publicadministration (Henry etal, 2009), international studies (Breuning and Quinn, 2011) and political economy (Stilwell, 2005), for example. Unfortunately, we see few signs to date of similar conversations taking place among scholars of interest groups and lobbying. Certainly, none have providedsuchasustainedcontributionashasbeenmadeintherelatedfieldofpublic affairsbyFleisher(2001,2003,2007;FleisherandBlair,1999). The contributions collected in this special issue reflect on the issues surrounding theeducationandtrainingoflobbyistsfromarangeofperspectivesandexperiences. TheissueopenswithapiecebyThomasHolyoke,HeathBrownandTimothyLaPira, whonotethatalmost90percentofregisteredlobbyistsinWashingtonDCareover 35yearsofage,andthusarguethatspecialistlobbyingeducationisbestsuitedtothe (post)graduatelevel.Holyokeetalpointtothreebroadareaswhichcanbetaughtto aspiringlobbyists–knowledge(bothofthepoliticalprocessandofpolicydomains), communication and messaging (such as how to most persuasively frame an argument), and relationship management (which for them includes the ethical standards lobbyists must follow). They conclude by outlining the topics which students might encounter in both a lobbying simulation and an overall Master’s curriculum. The practical, real world, emphasis of their suggested programme is highlightedbytheinclusionofacompulsoryinternshiporpracticumcomponent. ShiftingfromtheUnitedStatestotheNetherlands,ArcoTimmermans’reviewof developments in public affairs there over the last 15 years connects university programmeswiththeprocessofprofessionalisation.Onefeatureofthisspecialissue isthatitreflectsourcollectiveinabilitythusfartoagreeonterminology–sothreeof the articles contain ‘lobbying’ or ‘lobbyist’ in their title, while two refer instead to ‘public affairs’ and another deals with ‘public policy advocacy’. This divide is mirroredgeographically,withtwoofthethreeUS-focusedarticlesusing‘lobbying’, andtwoofthethreeEU-basedarticlespreferring‘publicaffairs’.Here,Timmermans notes evidence that while ‘lobbying’ was increasingly used in the last century and became a more popular expression than ‘public affairs’ in the mid-1970s, that situation has more recently been in reverse with ‘public affairs’ gaining in usage. In the case of the Netherlands, the Dutch Association for Public Affairs (BVPA) whichwaslooselyformedin1999andmoreformallyestablishedin2002,hassince grown to over 600 members. The goals of BVPA would be familiar to all similar 2 ©2015MacmillanPublishersLtd.2047-7414 InterestGroups&Advocacy Vol.4,1,1–6 Editorial national associations in the field – to encourage professionalisation, to promote the lobbying industry and enhance its reputation – but the group has also taken an innovative step in collaborating with an university to establish and fund a Chair in Public Affairs, which Arco Timmermans holds. From this unique vantage point, Timmermans concludes from surveys of Dutch practitioners that a more systematic approach is needed to develop the skills, knowledge and competences required by lobbyists.Hearguesthatourbodyofknowledgeshouldbefocusedonthreeprincipal elements:strategicintelligenceonpolicyissuesandvenues;theimpactofsocialand politicalcapitalontrustandreputation;andtheinternalorganisationalembeddingof public affairs. Until these components are built into interdisciplinary Master’s programmes, Timmermans suggests that it will be problematic to make substantial progress on the professionalisation of the industry (including potentially the accreditationandlicensingofpractitioners). Echoing, in a US context, Timmermans’ call for more expansive engagement between academics and professionals, Patrick Griffin and James Thurber draw on their experience of having run American University’s Public Affairs and Advocacy Institute(PAAI)foralmostaquarterofacentury.Outliningtheircurriculum,Griffin and Thurber draw attention to how practicing lobbyists can be used as more than simplyoccasionalguestspeakers,byservingasmentorstogroupsofstudentsasthey develop practical assignments to formulate lobbying campaigns. Indeed, the whole PAAI curriculum is built around what Griffin and Thurber term ‘The Campaign Mindset’,inthateachmodulefocusesonacomponentofacomprehensivelobbying strategy, aiming to produce ultimately a multidimensional and dynamic advocacy effortcapableofachievingpolicychangeintherealworld.Importantly,inaddition to imparting knowledge about policymaking and technical skills for effective advocacy, Griffin and Thurber recognise that lobbying is an art, which apprentices can only fully understand through exposure to more experienced and seasoned craftsmenandwomen. ReturningtoEurope,thenextarticleinthisspecialissuerevealshowasuccessful publicaffairsprogrammeinAustriahasbeendeveloped.JuliaWippersberg,Nicole Wagner andKlaus Lojkaofferanoverviewoftheirmodelofapart-time,two-year, Master’scourse.Althoughmanysuchprogrammesaroundtheworldprovideablend of academic theory and professional expertise, the focus is often primarily on the practical; here, though, the course is explicitly designed with a very thorough theoretical foundation. So, the entire first year of the programme is dominated by topics such as communication theory, economics, sociology, psychology, history, politicsandinternationalrelations,lawandbusiness,beforemovingoninthesecond year to the lobbying tactics and techniques which are more common to other programmes. The establishment of this course marks a significant point in the progress towards professionalisation in Austria, and interestingly (even, unusually) students must undertake an entrance exam (including writing a lobbying position paper)inordertobeacceptedontotheprogramme. ©2015MacmillanPublishersLtd.2047-7414 InterestGroups&Advocacy Vol.4,1,1–6 3 Editorial WenextreturntoaUSperspectivethistimeoneofferedbyapractitioner.Howard Marlowe, a two-time former president of the American League of Lobbyists (now renamedtheAssociationofGovernmentRelationsProfessionals(AGRP)),regardsa corebodyofknowledgeastaughtbyreputableeducationalprogrammesasessential iflobbyingistoadvancetoprofessionalstatus.Hedescribesthecontentandpurpose oftheARGP’sLobbyingCertificateProgramthathasrunsince2006,andsuggestsa novel route by which this course – and others offered at university level – could potentially be recognised by Congress, with successful completion required of all thoselobbyistswhomustregisterundercurrentdisclosurelegislation.Marlowenotes thatsomeonewhoworksasabarberinWashingtonmustattendaprescribedcourse, pass exams, and undertake continuing education throughout their career in order to belicensedtooffertheirservicestothepublic.NotsoforaWashingtonlobbyist. Thefinalarticleinthisspecialissue(andthemostempirical),byMarcoAlthaus, takesupthethemeofwhatcompetencesandknowledgelobbyistsneedtopossess,in theGermancontext.Hebeginsbyexaminingthevariousentryroutesintotheindustry (including apprenticeship models and traineeships), and goeson toanalyse the skills requested in job ads placed by lobbying employers (associations, companies and consultancies).Althausseeslobbyingasessentiallyboundaryspanning,ablendofart and science, and finds little consensus across the industry on even the most basic terminology. His research provides some of the most concrete evidence we have to dateonthe human capitaldimension ofthe lobbyingindustry, and could usefullybe replicatedinothernations. The efforts of all the authors included here to produce their work to a relatively strict deadline are much appreciated, as indeed are those of the authors whose submitted articles could not be included. Thanks also to those who reviewed submissions for this special issue: Steve Billet, Justin Fisher, Phil Harris, Ron Hrebenar, Grant Jordan, Peter Koppl, Bird Loomis, David Lowery, Christine Mahoney,KevinMoloney,DannyMoss,GillMorris,TonyNownes,IanSomerville, CliveThomasandStuartThomson. This special issue can only accomplish so much in itself, but the editors and contributors offer it as a starting point for a more sustained conversation between academics and practitioners over the coming years. For myself, I regard the professionalisationofthelobbyingindustryasthesinglemostfundamentalquestion withwhichtheindustryhastoengage.Nofundamentalelementofthepublicpolicy- makingprocesscanexpecttosurviveunscathedindefinitelyifitisbroadlyregarded by the public as illegitimate. In its annual survey of perceptions about the honesty andethicsofvariousprofessions,Gallup(2008,2013)generallyfindslobbyistsatthe bottomofthelist–in2013,only6percentratedlobbyistsas‘high’or‘veryhigh’for ethical standards compared with 82 per cent for nurses, and in 2008 lobbyists hit a recordacrossallprofessionswith64percentsayingthattheirintegritywas‘low’or ‘verylow’.Similarly,a2014VanityFairpollsawlobbyiststopthelist(with26per cent)ofthe‘greediest’professions. 4 ©2015MacmillanPublishersLtd.2047-7414 InterestGroups&Advocacy Vol.4,1,1–6 Editorial The only way in which lobbying can achieve greater public legitimacy is for the industrytomakeprogresstowardsgreaterprofessionalisation(McGrath,2005).That encompasses a wide agenda – including more transparency and accountability, effective professionalassociations,agreaterwillingnessbylobbyiststoeducate the publicaboutthevirtuesofinterestrepresentation,thearticulationofacommonsetof professional norms and values. One crucial element in the professional edifice is certainlythedevelopmentofrecognisedhighereducationcoursesandqualifications. No consensus yet exists as to what a lobbying curriculum should contain, or how academic content and experiential learning can be balanced. We continue to debate whetherlobbyingskillsevencanbetaught(Goldman,2012)–althoughtheauthors includedinthisspecialissueallbelievethattheycan.Thepathtoprofessionalisation depends upon greater dialogue taking place between the academic and professional communities.Oneusefuladvancewouldbetoestablishaninternationalassociation bringing together lobbyists’ associations and academics who research and teach lobbying, but that first requires some entrepreneurs with seed funding to get such a group off the ground. Each of us, though, scholars and practitioners alike, can individually contribute by giving voice to our own thoughts and perspectives – in articles and conference papers, in departmental curriculum meetings and in profes- sionalgroups.Ifthisspecialissuecanhelpstimulateincreaseddiscussionaroundthe educationandtrainingoflobbyists,itwillhaveplayedausefulrole. References Berry,J.M.(1977)LobbyingforthePeople.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress. Breuning,M.andQuinn,J.J.(2011)Theinternationalstudiesminorinpractice:Programoffferingsand studentchoices.JournalofPoliticalScienceEducation7(2):173–195. CommissiononPublicRelationsEducations(2006)TheProfessionalBond:PublicRelationsEducation forthe21stCentury.NewYork:CommissiononPublicRelationsEducation,http://www.commpred .org/_uploads/report2-full.pdf,accessed7January2015. CommissiononPublicRelationsEducation(2012)StandardsforaMaster’sDegreeinPublicRelations: Educating for Complexity. 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