IndoorPositioning IEEEPress 445HoesLane Piscataway,NJ08854 IEEEPressEditorialBoard EkramHossain,EditorinChief GiancarloFortino AndreasMolisch LindaShafer DavidAlanGrier SaeidNahavandi MohammadShahidehpour DonaldHeirman RayPerez SarahSpurgeon XiaoouLi JeffreyReed AhmetMuratTekalp Indoor Positioning Technologiesandperformance NelSamama ElectronicsandPhysicsDepartment InstitutMines-Telecom,France Copyright©2019byTheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.Allrightsreserved. PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey. PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada. 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Setin10/12ptWarnockProbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 v Contents Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Introduction xv 1 ALittlePieceofHistory… 1 1.1 TheFirstAgeofNavigation 1 1.2 LongitudeProblemandImportanceofTime 2 1.3 LinkBetweenTimeandSpace 4 1.3.1 ABriefHistoryoftheEvolutionofthePerceptionofTime 4 1.3.2 ComparisonwiththePossibleChangeinOurPerceptionofSpace 6 1.4 TheRadioAge 8 1.5 FirstTerrestrialPositioningSystems 9 1.6 TheEraofArtificialSatellites 11 1.6.1 GPSSystem 13 1.7 NewProblem:AvailabilityandAccuracyofPositioningSystems 14 Bibliography 15 2 WhatExactlyIstheIndoorPositioningProblem? 17 2.1 GeneralIntroductiontoIndoorPositioning 18 2.1.1 BasicProblem:ExampleoftheNavigationApplication 19 2.1.2 The“Perceived”Needs 20 2.1.3 WideRangeofPossibleTechnologies 22 2.1.4 Commentsonthe“Best”Solution 25 2.1.4.1 LocalorGlobalCoverage 26 2.1.4.2 WithorWithoutLocalInfrastructure 27 2.2 IsIndoorPositioningtheNext“LongitudeProblem”? 27 2.3 QuickSummaryoftheIndoorProblem 30 Bibliography 31 vi Contents 3 GeneralIntroductiontoPositioningTechniquesandTheir AssociatedDifficulties 33 3.1 Angle-BasedPositioningTechnique 33 3.1.1 PureAngle-BasedPositioningTechnique 33 3.1.2 Triangulation-BasedPositioningTechnique 34 3.2 Distance-BasedPositioningTechnique 35 3.2.1 DistancestoKnownEnvironment-BasedPositioningTechnique 35 3.2.2 RadarMethod 36 3.2.3 HyperbolicMethod 38 3.2.4 MobileTelecommunicationNetworks 38 3.3 Doppler-BasedPositioningApproach 40 3.3.1 DopplerRadarMethod 40 3.3.2 DopplerPositioningApproach 41 3.4 PhysicalQuantity-BasedPositioningApproaches 42 3.4.1 LuminosityMeasurements 42 3.4.2 LocalNetworks 42 3.4.3 AttitudeandHeadingReferenceSystem 45 3.4.3.1 Accelerometers 46 3.4.3.2 Gyrometers 47 3.4.3.3 Odometers 47 3.4.3.4 Magnetometers 48 3.5 Image-BasedPositioningApproach 49 3.6 ILS,MLS,VOR,andDME 49 3.7 Summary 51 Bibliography 52 4 VariousPossibleClassificationsofIndoorTechnologies 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 ParameterstoBeConsidered 56 4.3 DiscussionAboutTheseParameters 57 4.3.1 ParametersRelatedtotheHardwareoftheSystem 57 4.3.2 ParametersRelatedtotheTypeandPerformancesoftheSystem 58 4.3.3 ParametersRelatedtotheRealImplementationoftheSystem 59 4.3.4 ParametersRelatedtothePhysicalAspectsoftheSystem 60 4.4 TechnologiesConsidered 63 4.5 CompleteTables 71 4.6 PlayingwiththeCompleteTable 79 4.7 SelectedApproachfortheRestoftheBook 88 Bibliography 99 Contents vii 5 ProximityTechnologies:Approaches,Performance,and Limitations 103 5.1 BarCodes 103 5.2 ContactlessCardsandCreditCards 107 5.3 ImageRecognition 109 5.4 Near-FieldCommunication–NFC 112 5.5 QRCodes 114 5.6 DiscussionofOtherTechnologies 117 Bibliography 118 6 Room-RestrictedTechnologies:Challengesand Reliability 121 6.1 ImageMarkers 121 6.2 InfraredSensors 129 6.3 Laser 130 6.4 Lidar 133 6.5 Sonar 136 6.6 UltrasoundSensors 138 Bibliography 140 7 “SetofRooms”Technologies 145 7.1 Radar 145 7.2 RFID 149 7.3 UWB 152 Bibliography 156 8 BuildingRangeTechnologies 159 8.1 Accelerometer 159 8.2 BluetoothandBluetoothLowEnergy 163 8.3 Gyrometer 167 8.4 Image-RelativeDisplacement 169 8.5 ImageSLAM 171 8.6 LiFi 171 8.7 LightOpportunity 174 8.8 Sound 176 8.9 Theodolite 177 8.10 WiFi 180 8.11 SymbolicWiFi 182 Bibliography 187 viii Contents 9 BuildingRangeTechnologies:TheSpecificCaseofIndoor GNSS 191 9.1 Introduction 191 9.2 ConceptofLocalTransmitters 193 9.3 Pseudolites 194 9.4 Repeaters 198 9.4.1 ClockBiasApproach 199 9.4.2 PseudoRangesApproach 202 9.4.2.1 TheoreticalAspects 202 9.5 Repealites 206 9.5.1 ProposedSystemArchitecture 206 9.5.2 Advantages 208 9.5.3 Limitations 209 9.6 Grin-Locs 209 9.6.1 DoubleAntenna 210 9.6.1.1 AngleApproach 210 9.6.1.2 QuadricsApproach 211 9.6.2 ResolutioninCaseofSeveralDoubleAntennas 213 9.6.2.1 PositioningwiththeAngleApproach 213 9.6.2.2 PositioningwiththeQuadricApproach 214 Bibliography 216 10 WideAreaIndoorPositioning:Block,City,andCounty Approaches 223 10.1 Introduction 223 10.2 AmateurRadio 225 10.3 ISMRadioBands(433/868/…MHz) 226 10.4 MobileNetworks 227 10.4.1 FirstNetworks(GSM) 227 10.4.2 ModernNetworks(3G,4G,and5G) 232 10.5 LoRaandSigFox 234 10.6 AM/FMRadio 236 10.7 TV 237 Bibliography 239 11 WorldwideIndoorPositioningTechnologies:Achievable Performance 241 11.1 ArgosandCOSPAS-SARSATSystems 241 11.1.1 ArgosSystem 241 11.1.2 COSPAS-SARSATSystem 244 11.2 GNSS 246 11.3 High-AccuracyGNSS 248 11.3.1 HS-GNSS 249 Contents ix 11.3.2 A-GNSS 251 11.4 Magnetometer 253 11.5 PressureSensor 256 11.6 RadioSignalsofOpportunity 258 11.7 WiredNetworks 259 Bibliography 261 12 CombiningTechniquesandTechnologies 267 12.1 Introduction 267 12.2 FusionandHybridization 269 12.2.1 StrategiesforCombiningTechnologies 269 12.2.2 StrategiesforChoosingtheOptimalData 270 12.2.2.1 LeastSquaresMethod 273 12.2.3 ClassificationandEstimators 274 12.2.4 Filtering 275 12.3 CollaborativeApproaches 276 12.3.1 ApproachUsingDopplerMeasurementstoEstimateVelocities 276 12.3.2 ApproachUsingDopplerMeasurementsinCaseSomeNodesAre Fixed 280 12.3.3 ApproachUsingDopplerMeasurementstoEstimateAngles 282 12.3.4 ApproachUsingDistanceMeasurements 285 12.3.5 ApproachAnalyzingtheDeformationoftheNetwork 287 12.3.6 Comments 288 12.4 GeneralDiscussion 290 Bibliography 291 13 Maps 295 13.1 Map:NotJustanImage 296 13.2 IndoorPosesSpecificProblems 297 13.3 MapRepresentations 298 13.4 RecordingTools 301 13.5 SomeExamplesoftheUseofIndoorMapping 304 13.5.1 SomeGuidingApplications 305 13.5.2 SomeServicesAssociatedwithMapping 306 13.6 Synthesis 308 Bibliography 308 14 SynthesisandPossibleForthcoming“Evolution” 311 14.1 IndoorPositioning:SignalsofOpportunityorLocal Infrastructure? 312 14.1.1 AFewConstrainedSelections 312 14.1.2 ComparisonofThreeApproachesandDiscussion 315 14.1.2.1 InvertedGNSSRadar 315 x Contents 14.1.2.2 NFC-DistributedSystemandItsMap 316 14.1.2.3 CooperativeApproachBetweenCommunicatingTerminals 317 14.2 Discussion 319 14.3 PossibleEvolutionofEverybody’sDailyLife 321 14.3.1 Student’sDay 321 14.3.1.1 MorningSessionattheUniversity 322 14.3.2 ImprovinganOutpatient’sVisittoHospital 323 14.3.2.1 Preparationofthe“Journeys” 323 14.3.2.2 DisplacementsofPatientsandAutomaticRescheduling 323 14.3.2.3 Reports–Analytics 323 14.3.3 FlowofPeopleinPublicPlaces 325 14.4 InternetofThingsandInternetofEverything 326 14.5 PossibleFutureApproaches 327 14.6 Conclusion 330 Bibliography 331 Index 333