Special Publication 18 Hypogene Cave ������������ ��������� Morphologies Edited by Alexander Klimchouk Ira D. Sasowsky John Mylroie Scott A. Engel Annette Summers Engel Special Publication 18 Hypogene Cave Morphologies 2014 Selected papers and abstracts of the symposium held February 2 through 7, 2014, San Salvador Island, Bahamas Edited by Alexander Klimchouk Ira D. Sasowsky John Mylroie Scott A. Engel Annette Summers Engel Copyright © 2014 by the Karst Waters Institute, Inc. except where individual contributors to this volume retain copyright. All rights reserved with the exception of non-commercial photocopying for the purposes of scientific or educational advancement. Published by: Karst Waters Institute, Inc. P.O. Box 4142 Leesburg, Virginia 20177 http://www.karstwaters.org Please visit our web page for ordering information. The Karst Waters Institute is a non-profit 501 (c) (3) research and education organization incorporated in West Virginia. The mission of the Institute is to improve the fundamental understanding of karst water systems through sound scientific research and the education of professionals and the public. ISBN Number: 978-0-9789976-7-0 Recommended citation for this volume: A. Klimchouk, I. Sasowsky, J. Mylroie, S.A. Engel, and A.S. Engel, Eds., 2014, Hypogene Cave Morphologies. Selected papers and abstracts of the symposium held February 2 through 7, 2014, San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 18, Karst Waters Institute, Leesburg, Virginia. 111 p. Published electronically. Cover caption: Precision radial cave passage survey in progress at Altar Cave, San Salvador, Bahamas. Photo credit: Ira D. Sasowsky HYPOGENE CAVE MORPHOLOGIES San Salvador, Bahamas February 2-7, 2014 CONFERENCE ORGANIZERS John Mylroie Alexander Klimchouk Ira D. Sasowsky KARST WATERS INSTITUTE OFFICERS President Janet S. Herman, Ph.D. Executive Vice-President William B. White, Ph.D. Comptroller David C. Culver, Ph.D. Secretary Ira D. Sasowsky, Ph.D. Treasurer of the Board Harvey DuChene Vice-President for Communications Annette Summers Engel, Ph.D. Vice-President for Education Horton H. Hobbs, III, Ph.D. Vice-President for Research Carol Wicks, Ph.D. KARST WATERS INSTITUTE BOARD OF DIRECTORS Emily Davis Horton H. Hobbs, III, Ph.D. Ira D. Sasowsky, Ph.D. Daniel Doctor, Ph.D. William K. Jones (Chair) Benjamin Schwartz, Ph.D. Harvey R. DuChene Jon B. Martin, Ph.D. Steven Taylor, Ph.D. John W. Hess, Ph.D. Paul J. “PJ” Moore, Ph.D. Dorothy Vesper, Ph.D. (Vice-Chair) Matthew Covington, Ph.D. Megan L. Porter, Ph.D. William B. White, Ph.D. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface.................................................................................................................................................................................................v Keynote Papers Hypogene Speleogenesis – Discussion of Definitions Dublyansky ......................................................................................................................................................................................1 The Methodological Strength of the Hydrogeological Approach to Distinguishing Hypogene Speleogenesis Klimchouk ........................................................................................................................................................................................4 Contributed Papers Bahamian Caves and Blue Holes: Exquisitely Preserved Fossil Assemblages and Taphonomic Influences Albury and Mylroie........................................................................................................................................................................14 Hypogene Cave Patterns in Iron Ore Caves: Convergence of Forms or Processes? Auler, Piló, Parker, Senko, Sasowsky, and Barton.........................................................................................................................15 Earth Tide, A Potential Driver for Hypogenic Fluid Flow: Observations from a Submarine Cave in SW Turkey Bayari and Ozyurt..........................................................................................................................................................................20 Preliminary Considerations on Hypogene Morphology in Toca da Boa Vista and Toca da Barriguda Caves, Northeastern Brazil Borges, Casarin, Menezes, Srivastava, Silva, Bezerra, and Auler.................................................................................................25 Facies Analyses and Diagenetic Evolution of the Hypogene Toca da Boa Vista/Toca da Barriguda Cave Complex, Salitre Formation (Irecê Basin, Brazil) – Preliminary Results Cazarin, Menezes Santos, Srivastava, Vieira, Bezerra, and Borghi..............................................................................................26 Modeling Speleogenesis using Computational Fluid Dynamics: Potential Applications to Hypogene Caves Covington and Myre ......................................................................................................................................................................27 A Review on Hypogene Caves in Italy De Waele, Galdenzi, Madonia, Menichetti, Parise, Piccini, Sanna, Sauro , Tognini, Vattano, and Vigna...................................28 Sulfuric Acid Water Table Caves (Grotte du Chat / Acqua Fitusa / Bad Deutsch Altenburg + Kraushöhle) De Waele, Plan, Audra, Vattano, and Madonia.............................................................................................................................31 Morphological Effects of Condensation-Corrosion Speleogenesis at Devils Hole Ridge, Nevada Dublyansky and Spötl ....................................................................................................................................................................36 Condensation Corrosion: Measurements and Geomorphic Evidence in the Frasassi Caves Galdenzi, Jones, and Macalady ....................................................................................................................................................44 Permian Hydrothermal Karst in Kraków Region (Southern Poland) and Its Peculiar Internal Sediments Gradziński, Lewandowska, Paszkowski, Duliński, Nawrocki, and Żywiecki ................................................................................47 Hypogene Limestone Caves in Germany, Geochemical Background and Regionality Kempe.............................................................................................................................................................................................48 How Deep is Hypogene? Gypsum Caves in the South Harz Kempe.............................................................................................................................................................................................57 Reservoir Characteristics of the Complex Karst of the Llucmajor Platform, Mallorca Island (Spain), Tool for Hydrocarbon Reservoir Appraisal Lapointe .........................................................................................................................................................................................65 iv Hypogene Cave Morphologies Karst Waters InstItute specIal publIcatIon 18 TABLE OF CONTENTS Hypogean Speleogenesis and CO: Suggestions from Karst of Italy 2 Menichetti.......................................................................................................................................................................................72 Active Hypogene Speleogenesis in a Regional Karst Aquifer: Ayyalon Cave, Israel Naaman, Dimentman, and Frumkin...............................................................................................................................................73 Hypogene vs Epigene Caves: The Sulfur and Oxygen Isotope Fingerprint Onac ..............................................................................................................................................................................................75 Per Ascensum Cave Morphologies in Three Continents and One Island, Including Places Where They Shouldn’t Occur Osborne .........................................................................................................................................................................................76 Helium Isotopes as Indicator of Current Hypogenic Karst Development in Taurids Karst Region, Turkey Ozyurt and Bayari..........................................................................................................................................................................77 Evolving Interpretations of Hypogene Speleogenesis in the Black Hills, South Dakota Palmer and Palmer.........................................................................................................................................................................82 Isotopic Studies of Byproducts of Hypogene Speleogenesis and Their Contribution to the Geologic Evolution of the Western United States Polyak, Asmerom, Hill, Palmer, Provencio, Palmer, McIntosh, Decker, and Onac ......................................................................88 Devils Hole: Antikarst in the Mojave Riggs...............................................................................................................................................................................................95 Hypogene Paleokarst in the Triassic of the Dolomites (Northern Italy) Riva.................................................................................................................................................................................................97 Speleogenesis by the Sulfidic Springs at Northern Sierra de Chiapas, Mexico, Based on their Water Chemistry Rosales-Lagarde and Boston........................................................................................................................................................101 Pondering the Importance of Subaerial Corrosion as a Speleogenetic Agent Sasowsky ......................................................................................................................................................................................102 Fingerprinting Water-Rock Interaction in Hypogene Speleogenesis: Potential and Limitations of Isotopic Depth-Profiling Spötl and Dublyansky...................................................................................................................................................................103 Hypogene Cave Morphologies v Karst Waters InstItute specIal publIcatIon 18 PREFACE Welcome to San Salvador, the landing place of Christopher Columbus in 1492. That event changed the world - what changes in speleological thought will result from this meeting of minds in a very special karst environment? San Salvador is a small island on a small platform. Everything we see in terms of geology and karst had to happen in a constrained area in a very brief amount of geologic time. This compression in space and time provides a useful setting to explore how speleogenesis works. The Hypogene Cave Morphologies conference is being held at the Gerace Research Centre (GRC) February 2-7, 2014. In keeping with the tradition of prior Karst Waters Institute meetings, the goal is creative interactions between engaged researchers. The main thematic activities of the conference are to examine and discuss the unique cave morphologies and speleogens associated with hy- pogene caves, from the scale of 100 km+ cave maps down to centimeter size wall rock shapes and forms. Hypogene caves can be argued to represent a laminar flow regime that is quite different from the turbulent flow found in epigenic stream caves coupled to surface hydrology. Can these morphologies be uniquely characterized to identify hypogene caves? What effect do these laminar flow regimes have on geochemical models of dissolution drive in hypogene settings? Do flank margin caves fall in the hypogene flow environment? The conference begins with an optional visit to two very large but easily accessible flank margin caves on Eleuthera Island that have a broad suite of morphologies commonly associated with hypogene caves. The field trip will also visit two other sites that bring into question the separation of pseudokarst sea caves from coastal dissolution caves. The main part of the meeting is a field conference, with on-the-ground activities every day. Evenings and two half-days are devoted to sessions; with posters being displayed during the evening social hour. The first day field trip establishes the geologic setting of San Salvador, so that the caves and karst seen on the sec- ond day can be understood in the tight time and space constraints of the island. These constraints help illuminate possible mechanisms of cave formation in this environment. Lighthouse Cave, the largest flank margin cave on the island, is visited the third day, and the last day has a series of optional field trips in the afternoon. About 30 invited participants from 13 countries, all of whom have demonstrated interest and expertise in hypogene caves, are partici- pating. This volume presents their written contributions as abstracts and papers. Conference Organizers John Mylroie Alexander Klimchouk Ira D. Sasowsky vi Hypogene Cave Morphologies Karst Waters InstItute specIal publIcatIon 18 KEYNOTE PAPERS Hypogene Cave Morphologies vii Karst Waters InstItute specIal publIcatIon 18 Y.V. DUBLYANSKY HYPOGENE SPELEOGENESIS – DISCUSSION OF DEFINITIONS Y.V. Dublyansky1 Existing definitions of the term hypogene karst (hypogene DEFINITION OF HYPOGENE speleogenesis) are not always consistent with the estab- SPELEOGENESIS lished meaning of the term hypogene in the Earth Scienc- es. They are commonly biased either toward geochemical or to- Finding a good definition for a natural phenomenon is always ward hydrogeological aspects of the phenomenon. It is proposed a balancing act involving search for the most appropriate mix that hypogene karst is defined on the basis of the two properties: of the exactness and the generality. Because the term hypogene predominance of the deep-seated sources of aggressiveness of is so widely used in the Earth Sciences, it is important also that karst water, independent of the environment at the overlying or its meaning in karst studies is consistent with the conventional immediately adjacent surface; and recharge of soluble formation one. from below, independent of recharge from overlying or immedi- ately adjacent surface. As the subject of hypogene karst gained prominence over the last decades, two approaches toward defining it have emerged. These approaches can conventionally be classed as geochemical THE TERM HYPOGENE IN EARTH and hydrogeological ones. SCIENCES In a geochemical approach, the emphasis is on the geochemi- The term hypogene was first introduced in geological litera- cal mechanisms, processes of dissolution, and sources of ag- ture by Sir Charles Lyell, in an attempt to remove ambiguity in gressiveness that lead to creation of karst cavities. For example, rock designation “primary” and “secondary”, customary at the Worthington and Ford (1995), following Ford and Williams time. Lyell (1833) postulated that “the hypogene rocks can only (1989), define hypogene caves as those formed “by processes originate at great depths in the regions of subterranean heat.” involving sulfate, sulfide, and/or thermal waters” (p. 9). A more- Subsequently, the term was re-introduced by Ransome (1913) general definition was proposed by Palmer (2000) who defined for ore deposits and minerals; again, to confront the “primary- hypogenic caves as those “formed by water in which the ag- secondary” ambiguity (mineral, ore, mineralization, etc.). He gressiveness has been produced at depth beneath the surface, also proposed the complementary term supergene for minerals independent of surface or soil CO or other near-surface acid 2 “deposited by generally downward moving and initially cold so- sources.” lutions” (p. 153). The hydrogeological approach was introduced by Klimchouk Presently, hypogene is rarely used to designate rocks (i.e., sensu (2007), who suggested that “the definition of hypogenic speleo- Lyell), but most commonly refers to processes, minerals, ores, genesis should rather refer to the source of groundwater, as it is deposits, solutions, and the like (sensu Ransome). This can be a medium of transport of aqueous and nonaqueous matter and illustrated by one of the earliest definitions of Bastin and Laney energy, a reactive agent and a major component of the speleo- (1918): “Solutions coming from great depth within the earth and genetic environment” (p. 6), and “The systematic transport and having a general upward flow will therefore be termed hypogene distribution mechanism capable of producing and maintaining and the work they accomplished hypogene mineralization.” the required disequilibrium conditions is the groundwater flow system … This is the single fundamental reason why the princi- Similar understanding is captured in modern reference sources, pal categories of karst and speleogenetic environments should e.g. “Hypogene is a term used only in the adjective form for any be distinguished primarily on the basis of hydrogeologic consid- geological process genetically connected with deeper parts of erations, rather than by the particular dissolutional mechanisms the Earth’s crust or for mineral, rock and ore formed beneath involved” (p. 8). the surface of the Earth. It is an opposite term to supergene. … Hypogene (= endogene) processes include tectonic, magmatic, Within the hydrogeological approach, hypogene karst is defined metamorphic and hydrothermal processes, as well as the for- through its place and position in hydrogeological system, most mation of various ore deposits. … Hypogene ore deposits are commonly on the basis of its relationships with the recharge area formed under the influence of deep-seated endogene (= hypo- at the surface. For example, Ford (2006) defines hypogenic spe- gene) geologic processes by the action of ascending solutions. leogenesis as “the formation of caves by water that recharges the Such solutions and conditions of ore formation are also called soluble formation from below, driven by hydrostatic pressure or hypogene.” (Springer Reference) other sources of energy, independent of recharge from the over- 1Institut für Geologie, Leopold-Franzens-Universität, Innrain 52, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria, [email protected] Hypogene Cave Morphologies 1 Karst Waters InstItute specIal publIcatIon 18