Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual Cat Version Eighth Edition Elaine N. Marieb, R.N., PH.D., Holyoke Community College PhysioEx™ Version 5.0 authored by Peter Z. Zao, North Idaho College; Timothy Stabler, PH.D., Indiana University Northwest; and Greta Peterson, Middlesex Community College Publisher: Daryl Fox Sponsoring Editor: Serina Beauparlant Project Editor: Mary Ann Murray Development Manager: Claire Alexander Managing Editor: Wendy Earl Production Supervisor: Sharon Montooth Editorial Assistant: Sarah Kaminker Art Manager: Laura Southworth Art and Photo Coordinator: Claudia Durrell Photo Researcher: Diane Austin Copyeditor: Carla Breidenbach Text and Cover Designer: tani hasegawa Compositer: GTS Graphics PhysioEx™ Project Editor: Barbara Yien PhysioEx™ Developers: Cadre Design Manufacturing Buyer: Stacey Weinberger Executive Marketing Manager: Lauren Harp Cover credit: Brian Bailey/The Image Bank Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Marieb, Elaine Nicpon Human anatomy & physiology laboratory manual / Elaine N. Marieb; PhysioEx version authored by Peter Z. Zao and Timothy Stabler.—8th ed, Cat version. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-8053-5517-0 1. Human physiology—Laboratory manuals. 2. Human anatomy—Laboratory manuals. 3. Cat—Laboratory manuals. I. Title: Human anatomy and physiology laboratory manual. II. Zao, Peter Z. III. Stabler, Timothy. IV. Zao, Peter Z. PhysioEx 5.0. V. Title PhysioEx 5.0. VI. Title. QP44.M34 2004b 612'.0078—dc22 2003069551 Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA 94111. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Pearson Education, Inc.,Rights and Permissions Department. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Benjamin Cummings gratefully acknowledges Carolina Biological Supply for the use of numerous histology images found on the PhysioEx CD-ROM. The Author and Publisher believe that the lab experiments described in this publication, when conducted in conformity with the safety precautions described herein and according to the school’s laboratory safety procedures, are reasonably safe for the student to whom this manual is directed. Nonetheless, many of the described experiments are accompanied by some degree of risk, including human error, the failure or misuses of laboratory or electrical equipment, mismeasurement, chemical spills, and exposure to sharp objects, heat, bodily fluids, blood, or other biologics. The Author and Publisher disclaim any liability arising from such risks in connection with any of the experiments contained in this manual. If students have any questions or problems with materials, procedures, or instructions on any experiment, they should always ask their instructor for help before proceeding. ISBN 0-8053-5517-0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—VHP—08 07 06 05 04 www.aw-bc.comThe Benjamin Cummings Series in Human Anatomy & Physiology By R.A. Chase The Bassett Atlas of Human Anatomy (1989) By Kapit/Elson The Anatomy Coloring Book, Third Edition (2002) By Kapit/Macey/Meisami The Physiology Coloring Book, Second Edition (2000) By E.N. Marieb Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition (2004) Human Anatomy & Physiology, Study Guide, Sixth Edition (2004) Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual, Main Version, Seventh Edition (2005) Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual, Fetal Pig Version, Eighth Edition (2005) Human Anatomy Laboratory Manual with Cat Dissections, Fourth Edition (2005) Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology, Seventh Edition (2003) The A&P Coloring Workbook: A Complete Study Guide, Seventh Edition (2003) By E.N. Marieb, J. Mallatt, and P.B. Wilhelm Human Anatomy, Fourth Edition (2005) Contents Preface to the Instructor vi Preface to the Student x Getting Started – What to Expect, The Scientific Method, and Metrics xii THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION Exercise 1 The Language of Anatomy 1 Exercise 2 Organ Systems Overview 10 THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS USES Exercise 3 The Microscope 21 THE CELL Exercise 4 The Cell: Anatomy and Division: 30 Exercise 5A The Cell: Transport Mechanisms and Permeability—Wet Lab 40 HISTOLOGY: BASIC TISSUES OF THE BODY Exercise 6A Classification of Tissues 48 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AND BODY MEMBRANES Exercise 7 The Integumentary System 67 Exercise 8 Classification of Covering and Lining Membranes 77 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM Exercise 9 Overview of the Skeleton: Classification and Structure of Bones and Cartilages 81 Exercise 10 The Axial Skeleton 90 Exercise 11 The Appendicular Skeleton 105 Exercise 12 The Fetal Skeleton 117 Exercise 13 Articulations and Body Movements 119 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM EXERCISE 14 MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY AND ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE 132 Exercise 15 Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System 137 Exercise 16A Skeletal Muscle Physiology: Frogs and Human Subjects 167 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Exercise 17 Histology of Nervous Tissue 185 Exercise 18A Neurophysiology of Nerve Impulses: Wet Lab 193 Exercise 19 Gross Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Nerves 200 Exercise 20 Electroencephalography 219 Exercise 21 Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and the Autonomic Nervous System 226 Exercise 22 Human Reflex Physiology 247 Exercise 23 General Sensation 257 Exercise 24 Special Senses: Vision 264 Exercise 25 Special Senses: Hearing and Equilibrium 278 Exercise 26 Special Senses: Olfaction and Taste 288 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Exercise 27 Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Glands 294 Exercise 28A Hormonal Action:Wet Lab 301 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Exercise 29A Blood 307 Exercise 30 Anatomy of the Heart 322 Exercise 31 Conduction System of the Heart and Electrocardiography 332 Exercise 32 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 343 Exercise 33A Human Cardiovascular Physiology: Blood Pressure and Pulse Determinations 359 Exercise 34A Frog Cardiovascular Physiology: Wet Lab 372 Exercise 35 The Lymphatic System and Immune Response 383 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Exercise 36 Anatomy of the Respiratory System 391 Exercise 37A Respiratory System Physiology 399 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Exercise 38 Anatomy of the Digestive System 418 Exercise 39A Chemical and Physical Processes of Digestion: Wet Lab 435 THE URINARY SYSTEM Exercise 40 Anatomy of the Urinary System 443 Exercise 41A Urinalysis 451 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, DEVELOPMENT, AND HEREDITY Exercise 42 Anatomy of the Reproductive System 458 Exercise 43 Physiology of Reproduction: Gametogenesis and the Female Cycles 467 Exercise 44 Survey of Embryonic Development 477 Exercise 45 Principles of Heredity 483 SURFACE ANATOMY Exercise 46 Surface Anatomy Roundup 493 Review Sheets 513 Histology Atlas 729 Human Anatomy Atlas 740 DISSECTION EXERCISES Dissection Exercise 1 Dissection and Identification of Cat Muscles 751 Dissection Exercise 2 Dissection of Cat Spinal Nerves 768 Dissection Exercise 3 Identification of Selected Endocrine Organs of the Cat 773 Dissection Exercise 4 Dissection of the Blood Vesseles of the Cat 776 Dissection Exercise 5 The Main Lymphatic Ducts of the Cat 787 Dissection Exercise 6 Dissection of the Respiratory System of the Cat 788 Dissection Exercise 7 Dissection of Digestive System of the Cat 791 Dissection Exercise 8 Dissection of the Urinary System of the Cat 796 Dissection Exercise 9 Dissection of the Reproductive System of the Cat 800 PHYSIOEX™ PhysioEx™ Version 5.0 Computer Simulations Introduction P-1 Exercise 5B The Cell—Transport Mechanisms and Permeability: Computer Simulation P-4 Exercise 6B Histology Tutorial P-15 Exercise 16B Skeletal Muscle Physiology: Computer Simulation P-17 Exercise 18B Neurophysiology of Nerve Impulses: Computer Simulation P-28 Exercise 28B Endocrine System Physiology: Computer Simulation P-37 Exercise 29B Blood Analysis: Computer Simulation P-48 Exercise 33B Cardiovascular Dynamics: Computer Simulation P-60 Exercise 34B Frog Cardiovascular Physiology: Computer Simulation P-71 Exercise 37B Respiratory System Mechanics: Computer Simulation P-78 Exercise 39B Chemical and Physical Processes of Digestion: Computer Simulation P-86 Exercise 41B Renal Physiology: The Function of the Nephron—Computer Simulation P-97 Exercise 47 Acid-Base Balance: Computer Simulation P-105 PhysioEx™ Review Sheets P-115 PhysioEx™ Histology Review Supplement P-155 Appendix A The Metric System BM-1 Appendix B A.D.A.M.® Interactive Anatomy Correlations BM-2 Credits BM-6 Index BM-9iiiiv Contents Contents v Preface to the Instructor Preface to the Instructor The philosophy behind the eighth edition of this manual mirrors that of all earlier editions. It reflects a still-developing sensibility for the way teachers teach and students learn engendered by years of teaching the subject, and by listening to the suggestions of other instructors as well as those of students enrolled in multifaceted health-care programs. Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Cat Version was originally developed to facilitate and enrich the laboratory experience for both teachers and students. This, its eighth edition, retains those same goals. This manual, intended for students in introductory human anatomy and physiology courses, presents a wide range of laboratory experiences for students concentrating in nursing, physical therapy, dental hygiene, pharmacology, respiratory therapy, health and physical education, as well as biology and premedical programs. It differs from Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual, Main Version (Seventh Edition, 2005) in that it contains detailed guidelines for dissecting a laboratory animal. The manual’s coverage is intentionally broad, allowing it to serve both one- and two-semester courses. B a s i c P e d a g o g i c a l A p p r o a c h The generous variety of experiments in this manual provides flexibility that enables instructors to gear their laboratory approach to specific academic programs, or to their own teaching preferences. The manual is still independent of any textbook, so it contains the background discussions and terminology necessary to perform all experiments. Such a self- contained learning aid eliminates the need for students to bring a textbook into the laboratory. Each of the 46 exercises leads students toward a coherent understanding of the structure and function of the human body. The manual begins with anatomical terminology and an orientation to the body, which together provide the necessary tools for studying the various body systems. The exercises that follow reflect the dual focus of the manual—both anatomical and physiological aspects receive considerable attention. As the various organ systems of the body are introduced, the initial exercises focus on organization, from the cellular to the organ system level. As indicated by the table of contents, the anatomical exercises are usually followed by physiological experiments that familiarize students with various aspects of body functioning and promote the critical understanding that function follows structure. Homeostasis is continually emphasized as a requirement for optimal health. Pathological conditions are viewed as a loss of homeostasis; these discussions can be recognized by the homeostasis imbalance logo within the descriptive material of each exercise. This holistic approach encourages an integrated understanding of the human body. F e a t u r e s a n d C h a n g e s In this revision, I have continued to try to respond to reviewers’ and users’ feedback concerning trends that are having an impact on the anatomy and physiology laboratory experience, most importantly: • the growing reluctance of students to perform experiments using living laboratory animals, the declining popularity of animal dissection exercises, and the growing demand for student-based experimentation • the increased use of computers in the laboratory, and hence the subsequent desire for more computer simulation exercises • the replacement of older recording equipment with computerized data acquisition and compilation systems • the continued importance of visual learning for today’s student • the need to reinforce writing, computation, and critical thinking skills across the curriculum The specific changes implemented to address these trends fall neatly into two areas: pedagogical and multimedia. Changes made in each of these areas are described next. P e d a g o g i c a l F e a t u r e s 1. Design Enhancements A color-coded heading design enhances the lab manual pedagogy and distinguishes important features of the text. Opening pages of exercises are enriched with colored background screens that highlight descriptions of exercise objectives and lists of required materials. Red Activity heads are used throughout the manual, alerting the student that “hands-on” learning is to follow. Activity heads for experiments involving BIOPAC® and other apparatus are also set off in red. A scissors icon and blue-green Dissection head herald sections that entail dissection of isolated organs. The conclusion of each Activity and Dissection is indicated by a block symbol, which is of the same hue as the section heading. Tables and charts are framed in blue and beige, and are placed near relevant text. 2. Art Program Revisions A completely revitalized art program is offered with this new edition. Several new figures have been added, and many illustrations have been revised for more detail, improved line quality, and stronger color. The tissue figures in Exercise 6 have been reformatted and now include photomicrographs that are much larger. Selected tables have been embellished with new full-color drawings. Several new photographs have been added to accompany diagrammatic figures, and many new photomicrographs are offered throughout the main exercises and in the Histology Atlas. 3. Updated Anatomical Terminology The anatomical terminology in this eighth edition has been updated to match that in Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition (main text authored by Elaine N. Marieb). 4. Content Changes Activities that have proven to be of limited pedagogical value because of unpredictability of results, difficult implementation, or general unpopularity have been deleted from the manual. These include the filtration demonstration in Exercise 5A, mapping rods and cones in Exercise 24, and estimating venous pressure in Exercise 33A. A number of new activities, many of which depend on student-student interaction, have been added to this edition. The following are representative of these additions: • Dermagraphics: Fingerprinting in Exercise 7 • Several changes in Exercise 13: for example, a new activity demonstrating the importance of friction reducing structures; the addition of a new joint (temporomandibular) to study; manipulating models to demonstrate hip and knee movements • Making a muscle painting using water-based paints to paint the skin over specific muscles on a classmate’s body in Exercise 15 • Demonstrating the galvanic skin response (lie detector test) using BIOPAC® in Exercise 21 • Per user request, adding the Tallquist method for determining hemoglobin back into Exercise 29A 5. Organization Changes As in the previous edition of the manual, the principal laboratory lessons, Exercises 1 through 46, appear first and are followed by corresponding Review Sheets and the excellent Histology and Human Anatomy Atlases. Within the main section are 11 exercises designated with the letter “A.” The“A” indicates that the exercise has a correlating “B” exercise—a PhysioEx™ computer simulation that can be used along with or in place of a wet lab activity. All 13 PhysioEx™ modules, as well as PhysioEx™ Review Sheets, are contained in a separate section located near the end of the manual. All instructions for dissection of the major laboratory animal (cat in this case) have been moved to a special section of the manual. In this section, the laboratory review sections are made part of the individual dissection exercises to encourage the student to look at questions during the laboratory when the dissection specimen is still in front of them. Four-color photographs are integrated in the dissection exercises and additional photographs have been taken to ensure that nearly all diagrams in this section are accompanied by a corresponding photo. This approach provides students with both a realistic (photographs in real color) and an idealized (diagrams in four-color) art program to guide their dissection experiences. M u l t i m e d i a F e a t u r e s 1. PhysioEx™ Version 5.0 Computer Simulations The PhysioEx™ CD-ROM, shrink-wrapped with every lab manual, has been expanded in the Eighth Edition of the manual to include a new lab on blood analysis, more data variability, and online worksheets. Unlike the typical tutorial-based computer supplements that usually target anatomy, the 36 physiology experiments on PhysioEx™ Version 5.0 allow students to explore with different variables while being guided through the process of discovery within the structure and security of a written lab exercise. Particularly advantageous is the fact that the students can conduct or review the experiments and slides at home on a personal computer. PhysioEx™ Version 5.0 also provides convenient “laboratory access” for students enrolled in Internet-based distance education courses and now is available online at www. physioex.com. (Use the access code found at the front of your lab manual to log onto the site.) PhysioEx™ Version 5.0 topics include: • Exercise 5B, The Cell: Transport Mechanisms and Per-meability—Computer Simulation. Explores how substances cross the cell’s membrane. Simple and facilitated diffusion, osmosis, filtration, and active transport are covered. • Exercise 6B, Histology Tutorial. Includes over 200 histology images, viewable at various magnifications, with accompanying descriptions and labels. • Exercise 16B, Skeletal Muscle Physiology: Computer Simulation. Provides insights into the complex physiology of skeletal muscle. Electrical stimulation, isometric contractions, and isotonic contractions are investigated. • Exercise 18B, Neurophysiology of Nerve Impulses: Computer Simulation. Investigates stimuli that elicit action potentials, stimuli that inhibit action potentials, and factors affecting nerve conduction velocity. • Exercise 28B, Endocrine System Physiology: Computer Simulation. Investigates the relationship between hormones and metabolism; the effect of estrogen replacement therapy; and the effect of insulin on diabetes. • Exercise 29B, Blood Analysis: Computer Simulation. Covers hematocrit determination, erythrocyte sedimentation rate determination, hemoglobin determination, blood typing, and total cholesterol determination. • Exercise 33B, Cardiovascular Dynamics: Computer Simulation. Allows students to perform experiments that would be difficult if not impossible to do in a traditional laboratory. Topics of inquiry include vessel resistance and pump (heart) mechanics. • Exercise 34B, Frog Cardiovascular Physiology: Computer Simulation. Variables influencing heart activity are examined. Topics include setting up and recording baseline heart activity, the refractory period of cardiac muscle, and an investigation of physical and chemical factors that affect enzyme activity. • Exercise 37B, Respiratory System Mechanics: Computer Simulation. Investigates physical and chemical aspects of pulmonary function. Students collect data simulating normal lung volumes. Other activities examine factors such as airway resistance and the effect of surfactant on lung function. • Exercise 39B, Chemical and Physical Processes of Digestion: Computer Simulation. Turns the student’s computer into a virtual chemistry lab where enzymes, reagents, and incubation conditions can be manipulated (in compressed time) to examine factors that affect enzyme activity. • Exercise 41B, Renal Physiology: The Function of the Nephron—Computer Simulation. Simulates the function of a single nephron. Topics include factors influencing glomerular filtration, the effect of hormones on urine function, and glucose transport maximum. • Exercise 47, Acid-Base Balance: Computer Simulation. Topics include respiratory and metabolic acidosis/alkalosis, and renal and respiratory compensation. 2. BIOPAC® Instructions Instructions for the use of the BIOPAC® Student Lab System are included in the lab manual: Exercises 16A, 20, 21, 22, 31, 33A, 34A, and 37A. 3. PowerLab® Instructions Instructions for use of the PowerLab® data acquisition and compilation system for Exercises 16A, 22, 31, 33A, 34A, and 37A can be found in Appendix B of the Instructor’s Guide. 4. Intelitool® Instructions Four physiological experiments (Exercises 16i, 22i, 31i, and 37i) using Intelitool® equipment are available in the Instructor’s Guide. Instructors using Intelitool® equipment in their laboratory may copy these exercises for student handouts. 5. Videotapes Human Anatomy & Physiology videotapes are available to qualified adopters. These excellent videotapes reinforce many of the concepts covered in this manual and will represent a valuable addition to any multimedia library. S p e c i a l F e a t u r e s R e t a i n e d Virtually all the special features appreciated by the adopters of the last edition are retained. • The prologue, “Getting Started—What to Expect, The Scientific Method, and Metrics,” explains the scientific method, the logical, practical, and reliable way of approaching and solving problems in the laboratory and reviews metric units and interconversions. A format for writing lab reports is also included. • Each exercise begins with learning objectives. • Key terms appear in boldface print, and each term is defined when introduced. • Illustrations are large and of exceptional quality. Full-color photographs and drawings highlight, differentiate, and focus student attention on important structures. • Body structures are studied from simple-to-complex levels, and physiological experiments allow ample opportunity for student observation and experimentation. • The numerous physiological experiments for each organ system range from simple experiments that can be performed without specialized tools to more complex ones using laboratory equipment computers and instrumentation techniques. • Tear-out laboratory review sheets, located toward the end of the manual, are designed to accompany each lab exercise. The review sheets provide space for recording and interpreting experimental results and require students to label diagrams and answer multiple-choice and short-answer questions. • In addition to the figures, isolated animal organs such as the sheep heart and pig kidney are employed because of their exceptional similarity to human organs. If no major dissection animal is used in your course, the laboraory manual version entitled Human Anatomy & Physiology, Main Version, Seventh Edition, is recommended. • The Histology Atlas has 63 color photomicrographs, and the edges of its pages are colored purple for quick location. The photomicrographs selected are those deemed most helpful to students because they correspond closely with slides typically viewed in the lab. Most such tissues are stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H & E), but a few depicted in the Histology Atlas are stained with differential stains to allow selected cell populations to be identified in a given tissue. Line drawings, corresponding to selected plates in the Histology Atlas, appear in appropriate places in the text and add to the utility of the atlas. The student can color these diagrams to replicate the stains of the slides; thus they provide a valuable learning aid. • All exercises involving body fluids (blood, urine, saliva) incorporate current Centers for Disease Control (CDC) guidelines for handling human body fluids. Because it is important that nursing students, in particular, learn how to safely handle bloodstained articles, the human focus has been retained. However, the decision to allow testing of human (student) blood or to use animal blood in the laboratory is left to the discretion of the instructor in accordance with institutional guidelines. The CDC guidelines for handling body fluids are reinforced by the laboratory safety procedures described on the inside front cover of this text, in Exercise 29A: Blood, and in the Instructor’s Guide. The inside cover can be photocopied and posted in the lab to help students become well versed in laboratory safety. • Appendix B correlates some of the required anatomical laboratory observations with the corresponding sections of A.D.A.M.® Interactive Anatomy. Using A.D.A.M.® to complement the printed manual descriptions of anatomical structures provides an extremely useful study method for visually oriented students. • Four logos alert students to special features or instructions. These include: The dissection scissors icon appears at the beginning of activities that entail the dissection of isolated animal organs. The homeostasis imbalance icon directs the student’s attention to conditions representing a loss of homeostasis. A safety icon notifies students that specific safety precautions must be observed when using certain equipment or conducting particular lab procedures. (For example, when working with ether, a hood is to be used, or when handling body fluids such as blood, urine, or saliva, gloves are to be worn.) The A.D.A.M.® icon indicates where use of the A.D.A.M.® software would enhance the study and comprehension of laboratory topics. S u p p l e m e n t s • The Instructor’s Guide that accompanies all versions of the Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual contains a wealth of information for those teaching this course. Instructors can find help in planning the experiments, ordering equipment and supplies, anticipating pitfalls and problem areas, and locating audiovisual material. The probable in-class time required for each lab is indicated by an hour-glass icon. Other useful resources are the Trends in Instrumentation section that describes the latest laboratory equipment and technological teaching tools available and directions for using PowerLab data acquisition and compilation system and Intelitool® instrumentation. Additional supplements include the following videos, which are available free of charge to qualified adopters: • Selected Actions of Hormones and Other Chemical Messengers videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Juanita Barrena (0- 8053-4155-2) • Human Musculature videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Allan Hinderstein (0-8053-0106-2) • The Human Cardiovascular System: The Heart videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Rosalee Carter, University Media Services, California State University, Sacramento (0-8053-4289-3) • The Human Cardiovascular System: The Blood Vessels videotape by Rose Leigh Vines, University Media Services, California State University, Sacramento (0-8053-4297-4) • The Human Nervous System: Human Brain and Cranial Nerves videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Rosalee Carter, University Media Services, California State University, Sacramento (0-8053-4012-2) • The Human Nervous System: The Spinal Cord and Nerves videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Rosalee Carter, University Media Services, California State University, Sacramento (0-8053-4013-0) • The Human Respiratory System videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Ann Motekaitis (0-8053-4822-0) • The Human Digestive System videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Ann Motekaitis (0-8053-4823-9) • The Human Urinary System videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Ann Motekaitis (0-8053-4915-4) • The Human Reproductive Systems videotape by Rose Leigh Vines and Ann Motekaitis (0-8053-4914-6) • Student Video Series Vol. I (0-8053-4110-2) • Student Video Series Vol. II (0-8053-6115-4) A . D . A . M .® S o f t w a r e Available for purchase from Benjamin Cummings to enhance student learning are the following: A.D.A.M.® Interactive Anatomy Student Lab Guide, Second Edition (ISBN 0-8053-5049-7) A.D.A.M.® Interactive Anatomy Student Package, Second Edition (Win: ISBN 0-8053-5043-8; Mac: ISBN 0-8053-5044-6) Student Workbook for A.D.A.M.® Standard (ISBN 0-8053-2115-2) Contact your Benjamin Cummings sales representative for more information, or visit our web site at www.awl.com/bc. A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s I wish to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to this edition: Bert Atsma, Union County College; Lynne Anderson, Meridian Community College; Maj Angarano, University of Texas at Arlington; Julie Baugh, Community College of Baltimore County Essex; Moges Bizuneh, Ivy Tech State College, Central Campus; Mike Gehner, Xavier University; Edwin Gines-Candelaria, Miami Dade Community College, Wolfson Campus; Ewa Gorski, Community College of Baltimore County at Catonsville; David Hall, Kirkwood Community College; Douglas Hirzel, Canada College; Ted Namm, University of Massachusetts Lowell; Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College; Elizabeth Murray, College of Mount St. Joseph; Julie Pilcher, University of Southern Indiana; Colin Pursche, Southern Cross University; Tim Roye, San Jacinto College South; Eugene Rutheny, Westchester Community College; Larry Seaman, Miami Dade Community College North Campus; Lori Smith, American River College; Charles Weitze, Mount Wachusett Community College. My continued thanks to my colleagues and friends at Benjamin Cummings who worked with me in the production of this edition, especially Daryl Fox, Publisher; Serina Beauparlant, Executive Editor; and Mary Ann Murray, Project Editor, who steered the manuscript every inch of the way. Applause also to Barbara Yien, PhysioEx™ Project Editor, who managed the new version of PhysioEx™, and to Sarah Kaminker, Editorial Assistant, who provided expert assistance. Many thanks to Stacey Weinberger for her manufacturing expertise, and to Lauren Harp, for keeping the team informed on the needs of the market. The excellence of PhysioEx™ reflects the expertise of Peter Zao, Timothy Stabler, and Greta Peterson. They generated the ideas behind the equipment graphics and envisioned the animations that would be needed. Credit also goes to the team at Cadre Design, including Ian Shakeshaft, David Hegarty, Robert Bleeker, and Chris Kemmett, for their expert programming and wonderful graphics produced in PhysioEx™. Kudos to Wendy Earl and her production team. Sharon Montooth got the job done in jig time. Laura Southworth, Art Manager, oversaw the art program, Claudia Durrell acted as art and photo coordinator, and Diane Austin conducted photo research. Just-right interior and cover designs were created by tani hasegawa. Carla Breidenbach brought her lab experience to copyediting the text, and improved its presentation as a result. Many thanks to Susan Baxley, who checked the currency of equipment included in the lab manual. Much appreciation for a job well done by J. Michael Reynolds, who contributed eight new BIOPAC® activities to select exercises in this edition, and to his assistant, Vorapong Nimnual, who carefully tested each activity for accuracy. Thanks also to Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College, and to Douglas Hirzel, Canada College, who consulted in their development. Finally, a tremendous dollop of gratitude to the team at BIOPAC®, especially to Jocelyn Kremer, who was extremely helpful in contributing her expertise to these activities. Last but not least, thanks to Linda S. Kollett for her contribution to the lab manual. She came up with ideas for revising selected activities, illustrations, and photographs for the last edition and wrote the informative Instructor’s Guide that accompanies this lab manual. We sincerely appreciate her efforts.vi Preface to the Instructor## Preface to the InstructorAIA Preface to the Instructor# Preface to the Student Hopefully, your laboratory experiences will be exciting times for you. Like any unfamiliar experience, it really helps if you know in advance what to expect and what will be expected of you. Laboratory Activities The A&P laboratory exercises in this manual are designed to help you gain a broad understanding of both anatomy and physiology. You can anticipate examining models, dissecting an animal, and using a microscope to look at tissue slides (anatomical approaches). You will also investigate chemical conditions or observe changes in both living and nonliving systems, manipulate variables in computer simulations, and conduct experiments that examine responses of living organisms to various stimuli (physiological approaches). Because some students question the use of animals in the laboratory setting, their concerns need to be addressed. Be assured that the preserved organ specimens used in the anatomy and physiology labs are not harvested from animals raised specifically for dissection purposes. Organs that are of no use to the meat packing industry (such as the brain, heart, or lungs) are sent from slaughterhouses to biological supply houses for preparation. Every effort is being made to find alternative methods that do not use living animals to study physiological concepts. For example, included in this edition is the PhysioEx™ CD-ROM. The ten simulation exercises on this CD allow you to convert a computer into a virtual laboratory. You will be able to manipulate variables to investigate physiological phenomena. Such computer-based simulations provide you with alternatives to the use of real animals. There is little doubt that computer simulations offer certain advantages: (1) they allow you to experiment at length without time constraints of traditional experiments, and (2) they make it possible to investigate certain concepts that would be difficult or impossible to explore in traditional exercises. Yet, the main disadvantage of computer simulations is that the real-life aspects of experimentation are sacrificed. An animated frog muscle or heart on a computer screen is not really a substitute for observing the responses of actual muscle tissue. Consequently, living animal experiments remain an important part of the approach of this manual to the study of human anatomy and physiology. However, wherever possible, the minimum number of animals needed to demonstrate a particular point is used. Furthermore, some instructor-delivered and videotaped demonstrations of live animal experiments are suggested. If you use living animals for experiments, you will be expected to handle them humanely. Inconsiderate treatment of laboratory animals will not be tolerated in your anatomy and physiology laboratory. A . D . A . M .® Interactive Anatomy If the A.D.A.M.® CD-ROM software is available for your use, Appendix B of the manual will help you link the various laboratory topics with specific frames of the A.D.A.M.® software to help you in your studies. Icons/Visual Mnemonics I have tried to make this manual very easy for you to use, and to this end two colored section heads and four different icons (visual mnemonics) are used throughout: The Dissection head is blue-green and is accompanied by the dissection scissors icon at the beginning of activities that require you to dissect isolated animal organs. The Activity head is red. Because most exercises have some explanatory background provided before the experiment(s), this visual cue alerts you that your lab involvement is imminent. The homeostasis imbalance icon appears where a clinical disorder is described to indicate what happens when there is a structural abnormality or physiological malfunction (e.g., a loss of homeostasis). The A.D.A.M.® Interactive Anatomy icon alerts you where the use of the A.D.A.M.® CD-ROM would enhance your laboratory experience. The safety icon alerts you to special precautions that should be taken when handling lab equipment or conducting certain procedures. For example, it alerts you to use a ventilating hood when using volatile chemicals and signifies that you should take special measures to protect yourself when handling blood or other body fluids (e.g., saliva, urine). Hints for Success in the Laboratory With the possible exception of those who have photographic memories, most students can use helpful hints and guidelines to ensure that they have successful lab experiences. 1. Perhaps the best bit of advice is to attend all your scheduled labs and to participate in all the assigned exercises. Learning is an active process. 2. Scan the scheduled lab exercise and the questions in the review section in the back of the manual that pertain to it before going to lab. 3. Be on time. Most instructors explain what the lab is about, pitfalls to avoid, and the sequence or format to be followed at the beginning of the lab session. If you are late, not only will you miss this information, you will not endear yourself to the instructor. 4. Follow the instructions in the order in which they are given. If you do not understand a direction, ask for help. 5. Review your lab notes after completing the lab session to help you focus on and remember the important concepts. 6. Keep your work area clean and neat. Move books and coats out of the way. This reduces confusion and accidents. 7. Assume that all lab chemicals and equipment are sources of potential danger to you. Follow directions for equipment use and observe the laboratory safety guidelines provided inside the front cover of this manual. 8. Keep in mind the real value of the laboratory experience— a place for you to observe, manipulate, and experience hands-on activities that will dramatically enhance your understanding of the lecture presentations. I really hope that you enjoy your A&P laboratories and that this lab manual makes learning about intricate structures and functions of the human body a fun and rewarding process. I’m always open to constructive criticism and suggestions for improvement in future editions. If you have any, please write to me. Elaine N. Marieb Anatomy and Physiology Benjamin Cummings 1301 Sansome Street San Francisco, CA 94111AIA# Preface to the Student# Getting Started_What to Expect, The Scientific Method, and Metrics Two hundred years ago science was largely a plaything of wealthy patrons, but today’s world is dominated by science and its technology. Whether or not we believe that such domination is desirable, we all have a responsibility to try to understand the goals and methods of science that have seeded this knowledge and technological explosion. The biosciences are very special and exciting because they open the doors to an understanding of all the wondrous workings of living things. A course in human anatomy and physiology (a minute subdivision of bioscience) provides such insights in relation to your own body. Although some experience in scientific studies is helpful when beginning a study of anatomy and physiology, perhaps the single most important prerequisite is curiosity. Gaining an understanding of science is a little like becoming acquainted with another person. Even though a written description can provide a good deal of information about the person, you can never really know another unless there is personal contact. And so it is with science—if you are to know it well, you must deal with it intimately. The laboratory is the setting for “intimate contact” with science. It is where scientists test their ideas (do research), the essential purpose of which is to provide a basis from which predictions about scientific phenomena can be made. Likewise, it will be the site of your “intimate contact” with the subject of human anatomy and physiology as you are introduced to the methods and instruments used in biological research. For many students, human anatomy and physiology is taken as an introductory-level course; and their scientific background exists, at best, as a dim memory. If this is your predicament, this prologue may be just what you need to fill in a few gaps and to get you started on the right track before your actual laboratory experiences begin. So—let’s get to it! The Scientific Method Science would quickly stagnate if new knowledge were not continually derived from and added to it. The approach commonly used by scientists when they investigate various aspects of their respective disciplines is called the scientific method. This method is not a single rigorous technique that must be followed in a lockstep manner. It is nothing more or less than a logical, practical, and reliable way of approaching and solving problems of every kind—scientific or otherwise—to gain knowledge. It comprises five major steps. Step 1: Observation of Phenomena The crucial first step involves observation of some phenomenon of interest. In other words, before a scientist can investigate anything, he or she must decide on a problem or focus for the investigation. In most college laboratory experiments, the problem or focus has been decided for you. However, to illustrate this important step, we will assume that you want to investigate the true nature of apples, particularly green apples. In such a case you would begin your studies by making a number of different observations concerning apples. Step 2: Statement of the Hypothesis Once you have decided on a focus of concern, the next step is to design a significant question to be answered. Such a question is usually posed in the form of a hypothesis, an unproven conclusion that attempts to explain some phenomenon. (At its crudest level, a hypothesis can be considered to be a “guess” or an intuitive hunch that tentatively explains some observation.) Generally, scientists do not restrict themselves to a single hypothesis; instead, they usually pose several and then test each one systematically. We will assume that, to accomplish step 1, you go to the supermarket and randomly select apples from several bins. When you later eat the apples, you find that the green apples are sour, but the red and yellow apples are sweet. From this observation, you might conclude (hypothesize) that “green apples are sour.” This statement would represent your current understanding of green apples. You might also reasonably predict that if you were to buy more apples, any green ones you buy will be sour. Thus, you would have gone beyond your initial observation that “these” green apples are sour to the prediction that “all” green apples are sour. Any good hypothesis must meet several criteria. First, it must be testable. This characteristic is far more important than its being correct. The test data may or may not support the hypothesis or new information may require that the hypothesis be modified. Clearly the accuracy of a prediction in any scientific study depends on the accuracy of the initial information on which it is based. In our example, no great harm will come from an inaccurate prediction—that is, were we to find that some green apples are sweet. However, in some cases human life may depend on the accuracy of the prediction: thus, (1) Repeated testing of scientific ideas is important, particularly because scientists working on the same problem do not always agree in their conclusions. (2) Conclusions drawn from scientific tests are only as accurate as the information on which they are based; therefore, careful observation is essential, even at the very outset of a study. A second criterion is that, even though hypotheses are guesses of a sort, they must be based on measurable, describable facts. No mysticism can be theorized. We cannot conjure up, to support our hypothesis, forces that have not been shown to exist. For example, as scientists, we cannot say that the tooth fairy took Johnny’s tooth unless we can prove that the tooth fairy exists!